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1、From Morpheme to Phrase,Email: Key: linguistics,1. Knowledge of the wordEvery speaker of every language knows thousands, even tens of thousands of words. The words we know are part of our linguistic knowledge.Knowing a word means knowing both how to pronounce it and its meaning.,Compare:(1) thecatsa
2、tonthemat the, cat, sat, on, the, mat(2) kwapmuknanuk （It is a word in the American Indian language, Potawatoni, meaning “They see us”.),The lack of pauses between words in speech has provided humorists with much material. The comical hosts of the show Car Talk, aired on National Public Radio, close
3、 the show by reading a list of credits that includes the following cast of characters:,In all these instances, you would have to have knowledge of English words to make sense of and find humor in such plays on words. The fact that the same sound sequences (Lois Bidderlowest bidder) can be interprete
4、d differently shows that the relation between sound and meaning is an arbitrary pairing,Morphology and Morpheme Morphology（形态学）The study of internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed. e.g.Adj.+ -ify verb: purify, amplify, electrify, falsifyA systematic study of morpheme.-Se
5、e (Hu, 2011:52-3),Morpheme (词/语素)the smallest unit of meaning. the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatic
6、al. e.g. chairman= chair+ man; boys= boy+ -s; purify=pur(e)+-ify-See (Hu, 2011:52),That is to say, meaning includes two levels: conceptual meaning and grammatical meaning. E.g.:boy -s re,How many morphemes are there in words such as “genre”and “centre”?How to distinguish a morpheme?Similar positionM
7、eaning consistencyMultiple occurrencee.g.: -ness happiness, sadness,Cranberrydisgust,Types of Morpheme Depending on what criteria one attempts to follow:Free morpheme and bound morpheme Root, affix and stemInflectional affix and derivational affix,Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morpheme (自由语素)
8、The morpheme that may make up words by themselves. All the mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Words consisting wholly of free morphemes are compound（合成词）. e.g. sunflowerBound morpheme（粘着语素）The morphemes that must appear with at least another morpheme. e.g. dis- + temper + -ed.-See (Hu, 2011:53
9、),Root, affix and stem Root（词根）The base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. e.g. international. Notes:All the words contain a root morpheme.A root may also be free or / and bound. English has relatively a few bound root morpheme, e.g. -ceive, -mit, -tain, a
10、nd cur. etc.-See (Hu, 2011: 53-4),Affix（词缀）A collective term for the morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). The affix is naturally bound. Classification of affixesprefix, suffix, and infix (中缀).Inflectional affix and derivational affix-See (Hu, 2011:53-4),I
11、nflectional affix (IA) and derivational affix (DA)Inflectional affixA morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, Johns (cf. Hu, 2011:54-5)Derivational affixA morphem
12、e that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. e.g. establishment and repaint. (Liu, 2005:329),How do you understand the distinction between IA and DA? Use an example for illustration. Similarity: both regarding affixes.Differences: the IAs and DAs ar
13、e different inProductivityMeaning changeConditionPositionSee (Hu, 2011:55),Productivity. The DAs are very productive in making new words. e.g. recite- recitation- recitalThe IAs are generally less productive than DAs. The IAs often only add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem. e.g.
14、 toys, walks, and Johns. They serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme(词素).Meaning change. Inflectional affixes often change the grammatical meaning of the words they attach to.The derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning of the word they attach to.,Condition. Whether one sho
15、uld add inflectional affixes or not depend very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence. The derivational affixes are more often based on the simple meaning distinctions. e.g. The boy likes to navigate the internet.clever: property VS cleverness: the state of being cleverPositions.
16、In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, always at the end of words. Derivational affixes can be both prefix and suffix.,Stemthe morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. The stem may be the same as a root. e.g. friendsA stem may contain a root an
17、d one, or more than one, derivational affix. e.g. friendship in friendships: friendship= Friend+ -ship+ -s-See (Hu, 2011:54),Allomorph (词素变体）-any of the different forms of a morpheme. -sCats sDogs zClasses iz,Plural morpheme,maps, dogs, watches, mouse/mice, ox/oxen, tooth/teeth, sheep/sheep s, z, iz
18、, ai, n, i: -See (Hu, 2011:56),Word and Lexical ItemsWord is a general, covering termLexical item is a specific termWrite, writes, wrote, writing, written? How many words? -1? How many lexical items? -5,Other factors for word identification:Stability （稳定性）Relative uninterruptibility（相对连续性） A minimum
19、 free form. （最小的自由形式）-See (Hu, 2011:57-8),（1）Stability chairman/*manchair disability/*abilitydisBut the internal structure of sentences is more flexible: The chairman looked at the audience.The audience looked at the chairman.,(2) relative uninterruptibility dis + appoint + ment No other element can
20、 be inserted into the word. But we can insert the word “only” into the following sentence:John loves Mary.John only loves Mary.,(3) A minimum free form -Boys are always boys.-Who is naughty?-Boys.-What was broken?-*The,Classification of words Word class （词类）9 word classes: n., pron., v., adj., adv.,
21、 prep., conj., int., and art.Variable and invariable wordsVariable words: have inflective changesInvariable words: do not have inflective changesGrammatical/functional words and lexical/content words Grammatical words （语法词）: conj., prep., art. and pron.Lexical words（词汇词）: n., v., adj., and adv.Close
22、d-class word and open-class wordWords with fixed and limited membership, e.g. pron., prep. and conj. etc. （封闭类词）Words with Infinite and unlimited membership, e.g. n., v., adj. and adv.（开放类词）A few more were introduced, namely,Particle （小品词）Infinitive mark ”to” subordinate units in verbal phrases, e.g
23、. look back, get by, etc.Auxiliary（助词）Negation, inversion, code（语码）, and emphasis.Pro-form（替代形式）Pro-adjective, pro-verb, pro-adverb, and pro-locativeDeterminers (限定词)Pre-determiner, central-determiner, post -determiner. -See (Hu, 2011:60),Word Formation,(1) From Morpheme to WordThe inflectional way
24、of formation: by adding inflectional affixesThe derivational way of formationDerivation (roots + affixes)Compound (word + word),In writing, the compound can be a single word (e.g. bodyguard), joined with a hyphen (e.g. traffic-light), or two parts with an ordinary space (e.g. washing machine).In Eng
25、lish compounds, the right member always serves as the head, it does not only determine the category of the compound, but also determines the major part of the sense of the compound.,Word Formation,(2) Lexical ChangeInvention （新创词语）Blending （混成法）Abbreviation（缩写词） /clipping（截断法） Acronym （首字母缩拼词）Backformation （逆构法）Analogical creation （类推构词）Borrowing （借词）-See (Hu, 2011:66-70),Word Group and Phrase,