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1、types of sentence are used, what is their function? Sentence complexity: Do sentences on whole have a simple or a complex structure? What is the average sentence length? Does complexity vary strikingly from one sentence to another? Is complexity mainly due to (i) coordination, (ii) subordination, (i
2、ii) juxtaposition of clauses or of other equivalent structures? In what parts of the text does complexity tend to occur? clause types: What types of clauses are favoredrelative clauses, adverbial clauses, or different types of nominal clauses? Are non-finite forms commonly used, and if so, of what t
3、ypes are they (infinitive, -ing form, -ed form, verbless structure)? What is their function? Clause structure: Is there anything significant about clause elements (eg frequency of objects, adverbials, complements; of transitive or intransitive verb constructions)? Are there any unusual orderings (in
4、itial adverbials, fronting of object or complement, etc)? Do special kinds of clause construction occur (such as those with preparatory it or there)? Noun phrases: Are they relatively simple or complex? Where does the complexity lie (in premodification by adjectives, nouns, etc, or in postmodificati
5、on by preposition by prepositional phrases, relative clauses, etc)? Verb phrases: Are there any significant departures from the use of the simple past tense? For example, notice occurrences and functions of the present tense, of the progressive aspect, of the perfect aspect, of modal auxiliaries. ot
6、her phrase types: Is there anything to be said about other phrases types, such as prepositional phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases? Word classes: Having already considered major word classes, we may consider minor word classes (eg functional words), such as prepositions, conjunctions, pronou
7、ns, determiners, auxiliaries, interjections. Are particular words of these types used for particular effect (eg demonstratives such as this and that, negatives such as not, nothing)? General: Note whether any general types of grammatical construction are used to special effect (eg comparative or sup
8、erlative constructions, coordinative or listing constructions, parenthetical constructions, interjections and afterthoughts as occur in causal speech). And see to the number of lists and coordinations. Figures of Speech Here we consider the features which are foregrounded by virtue of departing in s
9、ome way from general norms of communication by means of the language code, for example, exploitation of deviations from the linguistic code. Grammatical and lexical schemes (foregrounded repetitions of expression): Are there any cases of formal and structural repetition (anaphora, parallelism, etc)
10、or of mirror-image patterns (chiasmus)? Is the rhetorical effect of these one of antithesis, reinforcement, climax, anticlimax, etc? Phonological schemes: Are there any phonological patterns of rhyme, alliteration, assonance, etc? Are there any salient rhythmical patterns? Do vowels and consonant so
11、unds pattern or cluster in particular ways? How do these phonological features interact with meaning? Tropes (foregrounded irregularities of content): Are there any obvious violations of or neologisms from the linguistic code? For example, are there any neologisms (such as “portentous infants”)? Are
12、 there any semantic, syntactic, phonological, or graphological deviations? Such deviations are often the clue to special interpretations associated with traditional figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and irony. If such tropes occur, what kind of special interpretation
13、 is involved (for example, metaphor can be classified as personifying, animalizing, concretizing, synaesthetic, etc)? Context and cohesion Here we take a look at features which are generally fully dealt with in discourse analysis. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text is linked to another
14、are considered; for instance, the ways sentences are connected. This is the internal organization of a text. Under context, roughly the material, mental, personal, interactional, social, institutional, cultural, and historical situation in which the discourse is made, we consider the external relati
15、ons of the literary text or a part of the text, seeing it as a discourse presupposing a social relation between its participants (author and reader, character and character, character and reader, etc.), and a sharing of knowledge and assumptions by participants. Cohesion: Does the text contain logic
16、al or other links between sentences (eg coordinating conjunctions, linking adverbials), or does it tend to reply on implicit connections of meaning? What sort of use is made of cross-reference by pronouns (she, it, they, etc), by substitute forms (do, so, etc), or ellipsis? Is there any use made of
17、elegant variationthe avoidance of repetition by substitution of a descriptive phrase (as “the old lawyer” substitutes for the repetition of an earlier “Mr Jones”)? Are meaning connections reinforced by repetition of words and phrases, or by repeatedly using words from the same semantic field? Contex
18、t: Does the writer address the reader directly, or through the words or thoughts of some fictional character? What linguistic clues (eg first person pronouns I, me, my, mine) are there of the addresser-addressee relationship? What attitude does the author imply towards his/her subject? If a characte
19、rs words or thoughts are represented, is this done by direct quotation, or by some other method (eg indirect speech, free indirect speech)? Are there significant changes of style with respect to different persons (narrator or character) who is supposedly speaking or thinking the words on the page? W
20、hat is the point of view of the story? Are the frequent shifts of point view? If so, in whose voice is the narrator speaking? Chapter Seven Symbol What is symbol? Symbol, in the simplest sense, anything that stands for or represents something else beyond itusually an idea conventionally associated w
21、ith it. Objects like flags and crosses can function symbolically; and words are also symbols. (P. 218. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms.) A symbol is a thing that suggests more than its literal meaning. It exists widely even in our daily life. Our language itself is symbol. The daily gree
22、tings indicate that the passage of communication is open. Ring is a symbol of eternity. The sign of cross indicates atonement. The Big Ben symbolizes London, the Great Wall China. Ritualistic acts are symbolic. In church wedding the bride is handed over from the father to the groom. Holy eating is s
23、ymbolic of communion, baptizing cleansing and rebirth. The raising and lowering of a national flag certainly suggest meanings larger than the acts themselves. And finally toasting and shaking hands on formal or informal occasions. As rhetorical device, symbol is different from metaphor, which is lit
24、erally false but figuratively true. Unlike allegory, which represents abstract terms like “love” or “truth,” symbols are perceptible objects. In literature almost anythingparticular objects, characters, setting, and actionscan be symbolic if the author wishes to make it so by either hinting or insis
25、ting that the material means more than it literally does. Symbols are suggested through special treatment such as imagery, repetition, connotative language, or other artistic devices. In F. Scott Fitzgeralds novel The Great Gatsby, a huge pair of bespectacled eyes stares across a wildness of ash hea
26、ps from a billboard advertising the services of an oculist. Repeatedly appearing in the story, the bespectacled eyes come to mean more than simply the availability of eye examination. A character in the story compares it to the eyes of God; he hints that some sad, compassionate spirit is brooding as
27、 it watches the passing procession of humanity. Such an object is a symbol: in literature, a symbol is a thing that refers or suggests more than its literal meaning. There are quite a lot of symbols that appear in ordinary life, for the use of symbol is by no means of limited to literature and art.
28、For instance, a dove is a symbol of peace, the flag is the symbol of a country, and the cross is the symbol of the Christian religion. These are symbols adopted by a whole society and are recognized by all members of such a society. There are other kinds of symbols, such as figure 3, which may be ab
29、stract symbols. But symbols in literature works are different from either of the other types. Generally speaking, a literary symbol does not have a common social acceptance, as does the flag; it is, rather, a symbol the poet or the writer adopts for the purpose of his/her work, and it is to be under
30、stood only in the context of that work. It differs from the kind of symbol illustrated by the figure 3 because it is concrete and specific. A poet or a writer uses symbols for the same reason he/ she uses similes, metaphors, and images, etc: they help to express his/her meaning in a way that will ap
31、peal to the senses and to the emotions of the reader. Most symbols, in literature and everyday life as well, possess a tremendous condensing power. Their focusing on the relationships between the visible (audible) and what they suggest can kindle it into a single impact. Of course, in literary works
32、, symbols, unlike those in ordinary life, usually do not “stand for” any one meaning, nor for anything absolutely definite; they point, they hint, or, as Henry James put it, they cast long shadows. Symbolism The term symbolism refers to the use of symbols, or to a set of related symbols, which is on
33、e of the devices that enrich short fiction and compensate for its briefness in space. 2. There are two broad types of literary symbols Symbol is generally acknowledged to be one of the most frequently employed devices in poetry. In works of fiction it is no less frequent and no less important. The f
34、act is that, when a reader reads a work of fiction, his focus is mostly cast upon the plot, the character, and the language used, so that the symbols are automatically backgrounded on the readers part. But in some novels and stories, the symbolism looms so large that the reader will fail to get a co
35、mprehensive understanding of the work without paying special attention to the symbols. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of such works. The very title points to a double symbol: the scarlet letter A worn by Hester conveys a multiple of senses which differ greatly from what it literall
36、y stands for, and the work eventually develops into a test and critique of symbols themselves. Thomas Pynchons V. continues along much the same line, testing an alphabetical symbol. Another example is Herman Melvilles Moby-Dick, in which the huge white whale in the title of the book acquires greater
37、 meaning than the literal dictionary-definition of an aquatic mammal. It also suggests more than the devil, to whom some of the characters liken it. The huge whale, as the story unfolds, comes to imply an amplitude of meanings: among them the forces of nature and the whole universe. Literary symbols
38、 are of two broad types: one type includes those embodying universal suggestions of meaning. Flowing water suggests time and eternity, a journey into the underworld and return from it is interpreted as a spiritual experience or a dark night of the soul, and a kind of redemptive odyssey. Such symbols
39、 are used widely (and sometimes unconsciously) in western literature. The other type of symbol secures its suggestiveness not from qualities inherent in itself but from the way in which it is used in a given work, in a special context. Thus, in Moby-Dick the voyage, the land, and the ocean are objec
40、ts pregnant with meanings that seem almost independent of the authors use of them in the story; on the other hand, the white whale is invested with different meanings for different crew members through the handling of materials in the novel. Similarly, in Hemingways A Farewell to Arms, rain, which i
41、s generally regarded as a symbol of life (especially in spring), and which is a mildly annoying meteorological phenomenon in the opening chapter, is converted into a symbol of death through the uses to which it is put in the work. 3. Symbols in fiction are inanimate objects Often symbols we meet in
42、fiction are inanimate objects. In William Faulkers “A Rose for Emily,” Miss Emilys invisible but perceptible watch ticking at the end of a golden chain not only indicates the passage of time, but suggests that time passes without even being noticed by the watchs owner. The golden chain to which it i
43、s attached carries suggestions of wealth and authority. Other things may also function symbolically. In James Joyces “Araby,” the very name of the bazzar, Arabythe poetic name for Arabiasuggests magic, romance, and The Arabian Nights; its syllables, the narrator tells us, “cast an Eastern enchantmen
44、t over me.” Even a locale, or a feature of physical topography, can provide rich symbolic suggestions. The caf in Ernest Hemingways “A Clean, Well-Lighted Place” is not merely a caf, but an island of refuge from sleepless night, chaos, loneliness, old age, the meaninglessness of life, and impending
45、death. In some novels and stories, some characters are symbolic. Such characters usually appear briefly and remain slightly mysterious. In Joseph Cornards Heart of Darkness, a steamship company that hires men to work in Congo maintains in its waiting room two women who knit black woolthey symbolize
46、the classical Fates. Such a character is seen as a portrait rather than as a person, at least portrait like. Faulkners Miss Emily, twice appears at a window of her houses “like the carven torso of an idol in the niche.” Though Faulkner invests her with life and vigor, he also clothes her in symbolic
47、 hints: she seems almost to types of sentence are used, what is their function? Sentence complexity: Do sentences on whole have a simple or a complex structure? What is the average sentence length? Does complexity vary strikingly from one sentence to another? Is complexity mainly due to (i) coordina
48、tion, (ii) subordination, (iii) juxtaposition of clauses or of other equivalent structures? In what parts of the text does complexity tend to occur? clause types: What types of clauses are favoredrelative clauses, adverbial clauses, or different types of nominal clauses? Are non-finite forms commonl
49、y used, and if so, of what types are they (infinitive, -ing form, -ed form, verbless structure)? What is their function? Clause structure: Is there anything significant about clause elements (eg frequency of objects, adverbials, complements; of transitive or intransitive verb constructions)? Are there any unusual orderings (initial adverbials, fronting of object or complement, etc)? Do special kinds of clause construction occur (such as those with preparatory it or there)? Noun phrases: Are they relatively simple or complex? Where does the complexity lie (in premo