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1、A Course of English Lexicology,Without grammar,very little can be conveyed,without vocabulary ,nothing can be conveyed. -Wilkins(1972),No matter how well the student learns grammar,no matter how successfully he masters the sounds of L2,without words to express a wide range of meanings,communication
2、in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way. -McCarthy(1990),English Lexicology Lectured by:Meng Zhigang Address: 13419596397,0.1 Nature and Domain of English Lexicology Lexicology:a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.English lexicology aims at investigat
3、ing and studing the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents,their semantic structures,relations,historical development,formation and usages.,0.2 Subbranches of Lexicology and Relevant Branches of linguistics Morphology:branch of grammar which studies the strctures or forms of
4、words,primarily through the use of morpheme constructure,focusing on the inflections of words and word formation and examine how morphemes are combined to form words and words to form sentences.,Etymology:the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Mordern English is derive
5、d from the languages of early Germanic tribes with a fairly small vocabulary.We shall study how this small vocabulary has grown into a huge modern English vocabulary (over 1 million) and explain the changes that have taken place in the forms and meanings of words.,Semantics:the study of meanings of
6、different language levels:lexis,syntax,utterence,discourse,etc.But lexicology will focus on the lexical level,the types of meanings and sense relations such as polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,and semantic field all belong to the scope of semantic study and constitute an important part o
7、f lexicology.,Stylistics:the study of style.Its concerned with the users choices of linguistic elements in a particular context for special effects.Among the areas of study:lexis,phonology,syntax,graphology,we shall concentrate on lexis,exploring the stylistic values of words.,Lexigraphy:share with
8、Lexicology the same problems,forms,meanings, and usages of words,but they have a pragmatic difference.A lexicographers task is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader,providing authoritative reference,whereas the student of lexicology is to ac
9、quire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their lexical awareness and capacity of language use.,x,Most morphemes are realized bu single morphs like apple,bird,red,want,desire,etc.These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentenc
10、e.Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words.Some morphemes,however,are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Eg:the morpheme of plurality -shas a set of morphs in different sound context,e.g. in ctas/s/,bags/z/,in matches/iz/.The alternates /s/,/z/ and/iz/ a
11、re three different morphs.,The same is true of the link verb morpheme be.Its past tense is realized by two distinct othographic forms was,were,each of which happens to be a word-form,realizing preteriteand singular,and preteriteand singularrespectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /we
12、:/.Therefore,both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ or /we:/ are morphs.,An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs,which represent one morpheme.Just as we class phones together as allophones of a single phoneme,so we class morphs together as allomorphs of single morpheme.Take the plu
13、ral morpheme -sagain.Phonetically,it is realized by /s/,/z/,/iz/,all of which are allomophs.,Morpheme would morph/wud/ morph/wed/ morph/ed/ morph/d/ allomorph,3.4Morphemes and word-formation 1.Affixes Affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another
14、morpheme(root or stem).Affixes are limited in number in alnguage,and are limited in number in a language,and are generally classified into two subtypes,prefix and suffix,depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word: prefix mini-,un-,dis- suffix al,-tion,-ful Affix may a
15、lso be divided into inflectional and derivational:,Inflectional Affixes: walks walked walking stars watches,Derivational Affixes: sleepy lovely meanness amazement disunity,Mropheme: Free morpheme Bound morpheme : bound root affix: inflectional affix derivational affix: prefix suffix,2.Root(词根),Stem(
16、词干),Base(词基） A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.That is to say,its that part of the word left when all affixes are removed.In the word “internationalism”,after the removal of prefix “inter-”,suffix “-al” and “-ism”,whats left is the root
17、 “nation”.,A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. “Friend” in “friends” and “friendship” in “friendships” are both stems.The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root,whereas the latter indicates that a stem may contain two or more roots,pound,s
18、uch as “girlfriend”, “landlord”, “mailman”,etc.,A base is used as an all-purpose term,refering to a form to which affixes of any kind(both derivational and inflectional) can be added.It can be a root or a stem.In the case of internationalists,nation is a base,so are international and internationalis
19、t.,nation(root,stem,base) national(stem,base) international(stem,base) internationalist(stem,base) internationalists,It should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base.This is not true.In many cases,a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem,but o
20、nly a base.,This often happens when we deal with derivational affix ity leaves only the base form impratical,and by further removing im- we have the base form practicla left and by still further analysis,only practice remains. Impacticality impactical(base) practical(base) practice(root,stem,base),4
21、.Word Formation 4.1Affixation Affixation is the formation of words by adding word-foring or derivation,for new words created in this way are called derivatives.According to the positionas which occupy in words,affixation falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.,4.2.1Prefixation Prefixa
22、tion:the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes donot generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.,1)Negative prefixes:a-(amoral,apolitical);dis-(disloyal,disobey);in-(injustice);il-(illegal);ir-(irresistible);im-(impolite);non-(nonsmoking);un-(unfair
23、,unwilling),2.Reversative or Privative Prefixes de-(dehumanize,deforestation,decentralzie); dis-(disinterested,discoloured); un-(unseat,unhorse,unmask),3.Pejorative Prefixes mal-(maltreat,malnutrition,maladminstration); mis-(misinterpret,mistrust,misleading,misconduct); pseudo-(pseudo-scientific,pse
24、udo-democratic,pseudo-friend),4.Prefixes of Degree or Size arch-(archbishop,arch-captalist,arch-rival); co-(co-worker,co-teacher,co-manager); extra-(extraordinary,extra-large,extra-bright); hyper-(hypercreative,hypercautious,hypercritical),macro-(macroeconomics,macrostructure,macrocosm); micro-(micr
25、osoft,microcoputer,microwave,microfilm); mini-(miniskirt,minibus,minimarket); out-(outstanding,outwit,outsmart),over-(over-react,overestimate,over-indulgence); sub-(sub-system,subnormal,substandard); super-(superstar,supermarket,superhero,superpower);,sur-(surpass,surtax,surcharge); ultra-(ultra-con
26、servative,ultra-intelligent); under-(underestimate,undervalue,under-develop,undergrowth),5.Prefixes of Orientation and Attitude anti-(anti-government,anti-nuclear,anti-freeze,anti-hero,anti-theater) contra-(contradistinction,contraflow) counter-(counter-accusation, counter-offer,counterstrike,counet
27、r-reform) pro-(pro-democracy,pro-authority,pro-feminist),6)Locative Prefixes extra-(extra-curricular,extra-territorial,extra-marital) fore-(forearm,forehead) inter-(inetpersonal,inerstate,interplay,interbreeding,inter-city,intermarriage) intra-(intra-class,intra-party,intra-generation) super-(supers
28、tructure,superscript),tele-(telecommunication,teleprinter, telescope) trans-(transatlantic,transcontinental, trans-world,transplant,translate,transmit,transform,transcribe),7.Prefies of Time and Order ex-(ex-professor,ex-convict,ex-lover) fore-(forehead,forefather,foreknowledge) post-(post-trail,pos
29、t-election,post-independence),pre-(pre-trial,pre-retirement,pre-industial,pre-prepared,predetermine) re-(reread,remarriage,reconsider,redistribution),8.Number prefixes bi-,di-(bicycle,bilingual,bilateral,bimonthly,diameter) multi-,poly-(multi-candidate,multi-purpose,multi-dimentional,plytechnic,poly
30、syllabic) semi-,demi-,hemi-(semiautomatic,semi-skilled,demigod半神，hemisphere),tri-(triangle,tricolor,tripartite) uni-,mono-(unisex,uniform;monoculture,monocentric),9.Conversion Prefixes a-(asleep,aglow,atremble,alive) be-(befirend,bewail;bewildered,beloved) en-(em-) endanger,enrich; embitter,empower,
31、10.Miscellaneous Prefixes auto-(autobiography,autosuggestion) neo- (neo-Liberal,neo-expressionism) pan- pan-continental,pan-European proto- (proto-horse,proto-coaltion) vice- vice-chairman,vice-governor,4.2Suffixation Suffixation:the formation of new words by adding suffix to stem. Suffixation mainl
32、y change word class. 1)Noun Suffixes 1)Denominal Nouns Concrete:the suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete nouns.,-eer:profiteer,engineer,mountaineer -er:teenager,Londoner,three-wheeler -ess:priestess,stewardess,hostess,-ette:cigarette,kitchenette,dinerette; -let:droplet,
33、booklet,starlet -ster:gangster,songster,trickster,Abstract: -age:mileage,storage,coverage -dom:dukedom,officialdom,officialdom -ery,-ry:slavery,delivery,savagery;bakery;jewelry,machinery,pottery,-ful:armful,mouthful,pocketful -hood:adulthood;dauterhood -ing:carpeting,farning,golfing -ism:absenteeism
34、,consumerism;terrorism,ageism -ship:ambassadorship,governorship,authorship,sportsmanship,partnership,2)Deverbal Nouns -ant:assistant,informant,applicant -ee:addressee,transferee,assignee,absentee,divorcee -ent:correspondent,dependent,respondent -er,-or:commander,photographer;recorder,cooker,mixer;co
35、llaborator,speculator,elevator,-age:marriage,linkage,shrinkage,carriage -al:dismissal,survival,portrayal -ance:performance,insurance,attendance -ation,-ition,-tion,-ion:realization,imagination,addition,protection,commision,decision,opertaion,-ence:adherence,persitence,existence,dependence,recurrence
36、 -ing:building,opening,earnings,savings -ment:assessment,puzzlement,resentment,3)De-adj Nouns -ity:productivity,intensity,superiority;morality,popularity,familiarity -ness:youthfulness,perssiveness,uo-to-dateness,4)Noun and Adj Suffixes -ese:Chinese,Lebanese,Maltese -an,-ian: American,Australian;Cho
37、mskyan,Shakespearian,Elizabethan -ist:socialist,loyalist,methodist -ite(adherent of):Chomskyite,Thatcherite,2)Adj Suffixes 1)Denominal Suffixes -ed:blue-eyed,giant-sized,pear-shaped -ful:merciful,graceful,dutiful -ish:snobbish,monkeyish,sixtyish;Plolish,Jewish;thinnish,plumpish,-less:nameless,brainl
38、ess,humourless;priceless,timeless -like:animal-like,lady-like,dreamlike -ly:soldierly,friendly,cowardly;hourly,fortnightly -y:flowery,smoky,bloody,grassy;doggy,birdy,2)Deverbal Suffixes -able,-ible:washable,admirable,convertible,permissible -ative,-ize,-sive:talkative,affirmative,active,decisive,exp
39、ansive,3)Adv Suffixes -ly:gradually,scientificly,publicly -ward,-wards:homewards,downward,skyward -wise:percentage-wise,education-wise,4)Verb Suffixes -ate:originate,validate,hyphenate -en:strengthen,heighten,flatten,dampen -ify,-fy:solidify,glorify,amplify -ize,-ise:symbolize,fantasize,institutiona
40、lize,visualize,4.2 Compounding Compounding(or composition) is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases.Words formed in this way are called compounds.So a compound is a “lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word”.
41、Coupounds can be written solid(silkworm), hyphenated(honey-bee),and open(tear gas and easy chair),4.2.1Formation of compounds 1)Noun Compounds n + n: moon walk,end product n + v: toothache,frostbite v + n: crybaby,tell-tale a + n:deadline,blueprint n + v-ing:brainwashing,air-conditioning,v-ing + n:b
42、rainwashing,air-conditioning n + v-er:stockholder,bookseller adv + v:outbreak,downfall v + adv:sit-in,have-not v-ing + adv: going-over,carrying-on adv + v-ing:up-bringing,2)Adj Compounds n + v-ing: law-abiding,record-breaking a + v-ing:easy-going,high-sounding n + a:warweary,thread-bare a + a:deaf-m
43、ute,bitter-sweet n + v_ed:custom-built,town-bred a(adv)+v-ed:far+fetched,hard-won,n(a) + n-ed:short-sighted,lion-hearted num + n:ten-storey,four-leg num + n-ed:one-eyed,two-legged adv + v-ing:forth-coming,out-going v-ed + adv:worn-out,washed-up,3)Verb Compounds a)Through Conversion nickname(n): to n
44、ickname honeymoon(n):to honeymoon moonlight(n):to moonlight first-name:to first-name,b)Through Backformation lip-reeding: to lip-read bottle-feeding:to bottle-feed cahin-smoker:to chain-smoke mass production:to mass -produce,4.3 Conversion Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words
45、 of one class into another class,i.e. by turning words of one part of speech to those of another part of speech in traditional terms.Since the words that are made do not change morphological structure but in function,this process is also known as funtional shift.,1.Conversion to Nouns 1)Deverbal a.S
46、tate(of mind or sensation) doubt the state of doubting want what is wanted desire,love,hate,smell,taste,b.Event of activity search the act of searching laugh the act of laughing attempt,hit,release,swim,shut-down,teach-in,c.Result o fthe action catch what is caught find what is found reject,buy,hand
47、-out,answer,bet,d.Doer of the action help one who helps cheat one who cheats bore,coach,flirt,scold,stand-in,e.Tool or instrument to do the action with cover used to cover something wrap used to wrap something cure,paper,wrench,2)De-adj Common adjs a white a crazy a gay a liberal a native a Republic
48、an specifics angries finals necessaries drinkable valuables,Particles and others a given a drunk young married newly-weds two unknowns offerings ten-year-olds new-borns,3)Miscellaneous Conversion 1.Would you like a with or a without? 2.Better to be an also-ran than a never was. 3.His argument contai
49、ns too many ifs and buts.,4. Life is full of ups and downs. 5.Rubber gloves are a must if your skin is sensitive to washing powders. 6.Patriotisms,nationalisms,and any other isms,2.Conversion to Verbs 1)Denominal Verbs converted from nouns are semantically related to the original nouns in a variety of ways.,1.To put in or on N to pocket the money to can the fruit bottle,garage,corner,shelve,2.To give N or to provide with N to shelter the ref