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1、电大社会统计学名词解释资料小抄1社会统计学 社会统计学是运用统计学的一般原理，对社会各种静态结构和动态趋势进行定量描述或推断的一种专门方法与技术。人们既用它来分析已经发生和正在发生的现象，也用它来估计预测未来可能发生的现象。2国势学派产生于德国，其创始人为康令和阿亨瓦尔。该学派一直以统计学为名，但只用文字记述，不用数字计量，历史上人们将该学派称为“有名无实”学派。3政治算术学派该学派的创始人为英国人格朗特和威廉配第。该学派“用数字、重量、尺度来表达自己想说的问题”，虽然没有使用统计学这一名词，但所使用的社会宏观数量对比和分析方法揭示了统计学所要研究的内容，因此历史上人们将这一学派称为“有实无名
2、”学派。马克思对配第评价很高，誉他为“政治经济学之父，在某种程度上也可以说是统计学的创始人”。4数理统计学派 该学派的创始人未比利时人凯特勒，其最大的贡献就是将法国的古典概率论引入统计学，用纯数学的方法对社会现象进行研究。由于把概率论引进统计学，使社会随机现象数量方面的研究提高了准确性。因此，一门兼有数学和统计学双重意义的学科被命名为“数理统计学”。凯特勒也被人称为“现代统计学之父”。5大量观察法 大量观察法，就是就总体中足够多的单位进行调查和综合分析，用以反映社会总体的数量特征。大量观察法是统计调查阶段的重要方法6大数规律大数规律是随机现象出现的基本规律，它的一般意义是：观察过程中每次取得的
3、结果可能不同（因为具有偶然性），但大量重复观察结果的平均值却几乎接近某个确定的数值。7描述性统计 描述性统计，就是讨论范围仅以搜索的资料本身为限，而不予以扩大。早期的统计都是描述统计。8推论性统计 推论性统计，主要是依据概率论，研究如何依据有限资料对总体性质作推断，从而使统计的功能大为扩充。是在树立统计学派之后发展起来的，属于比较现代的统计分析方法。9样本和（或）样本总体 样本或样本总体，是通过抽样得到的用以推断总体特征的那个“部分”。10标志 标志是说名总体单位属性或数量特征的名称。11虚拟变量 当品质标志的变异性用离散变量来表达时，这个变量可称虚拟变量。12指标体系 指标体系就是一系列有内
4、在联系得统计指标集合体。13总体和总体单位 总体，就是作为统计研究对象的、由许多具有共性的单位构成的整体。也有人称之为母体。构成总体的每一个个体称为总体单位，简称单位，也称为个体。14中位数把总体单位某一数量标志的各个数值，按大小顺序排列，位于正中处的变量值即为中位数。15众数在一组资料中，出现次数（或频数）呈现“峰”值的那些变量值。16调和平均数N个变量值倒数算术平均数的倒数，也称倒数平均数。17几何平均数：N个变量值连乘积的N次方根。18平均指标：就是表明同质总体在一定条件下某一数量标志所达到的一般水平。19.显著水平能允许犯第一类错误的概率叫做检验的显著性水平，它决定了否定域的大小。20
5、.总体参数已知一总体分布，可求得它的特征值。根据总体分布计算的特征值，即根据总体各个单位标志值计算的统计指标，在推论统计中称为总体参数。总体均值和总体标准差(或方差)是反映总体分布特征最重要的两个总体参数，习惯上分别记作和(或2)。21.检验统计量 检验统计量是关于样本的一个综合指标，但与参数估计中讨论的统计量有所不同，它不用作估测，而只用作检验。22.中心极限定理如果从一个具有均值和方差的总体（可以具有任何形式）中重复抽取容量为n 的随机样本，那么当n 变得很大时，样本均值的抽样分布接近正态，并具有均值和方差/n 。23超几何分布超几何分布以样本内的成功事件的个数x为随机变量。若总体单位数为
6、N，其中成功类共有K个，设从中抽取n个为一样本，则样本中成功类个数x 的超几何概率分布为 P（x）H（x：N，n，K） 式中：xK，0xn,0KN。 超几何分布的数学期望，方差224泊松分布泊松分布为离散型随机变量的概率分布，随机变量为样本内成功事件的次数。若为成功次数的期望值，假定它为已知。而且在某一时空中成功的次数很少，超过5次的成功概率可忽不计，那么稀有事件出现的次数x的泊松概率分布为 P（x）P（x；） 泊松分布的期望值和方差均等于它的唯一参数。25卡方分布设随机变量X1，X2，Xk，相互独立，且都服从同一的正态分布N (，2)。那么，我们可以先把它们变为标准正态变量Z1，Z2，Zk，
7、k个独立标准正态变量的平方和被定义为卡方分布（分布）的随机变量（）（）2（）2（）2 其中k为卡方分布的自由度，它表示定义式中独立变量的个数。 分布的期望值是自由度k，方差值为自由度的2倍。26F分布F分布是连续型随机变量的另一种重要的小样本分布。设（）和（）相互独立，那么随机变量 F（，） 服从自由度为(，)的F分布。其中，分子上的自由度叫做第一自由度，分母上的自由度叫做第二自由度。27点估计所谓点估计，就是根据样本数据算出一个单一的估计值，用它来估计总体的参数值。28区间估计所谓区间估计，就是计算抽样平均误差，指出估计的可信程度，进而在点估计的基础上，确定总体参数的所在范围或区间。29置信
8、区间置信区间就是我们为了增加参数被估计到的信心而在点估计两边设置的估计区间。30.独立双样本所谓独立样本，指双样本是在两个总体中相互独立地抽取的31.配对样本所谓配对样本，指只有一个总体，双样本是由于样本中的个体两两匹配成对而产生的。32.单一试验组的试验: 单一实验组实验是对同一对象在某种措施实行前后进行观察比较的一种简单实验，它只有实验组而没有控制组。或者说，同一个组在实施实验刺激之前是实验中的“控制组”，在实施实验刺激之后就成了“实验组”。33.一试验组与一控制组的试验配对样本的一实验组与一控制组之假设检验，要设法把实验变量的作用和额外变量的作用区分开来，然后就像对待单一实验组实验一样，
9、把问题转化为零假设d0的单样本检验来处理。34拟和优度检验：是有关检定总体是否具有正态或其他分布形式的非参数统计检验。35列联表：是按品质标志把两个变量的频数进行交互分类的统计表格。36理论频数：是按照理论分布计算出的样本各组频数。37方差分析：研究多个总体均值是否存在差异的统计检验方法。38方差分析表：用于表达方差分析结果的标准形式的表格。其基本形式如下：项目 SS 自由度 MS 检验统计量 临界值 显著性 组间 SSB （c1） MSB MSB / MSW F(c1，nc) （待定） 组内 SSW （nc） MSW 总 SST （n1） 39总变差：记作SST，它表示对于总均值的偏差之平方
10、和，即 SST 40组内变差：记作SSW，它是各观测值对其所属类别均值的偏差的平方和，即41组间平方和：记作SSB，是自变量因素所没有解释的的变异，即42.相关比率：方差分析中把已解释的变差对总变差的比值称为相关比率，用符号表示。 1 43估计标准误差：为回归剩余方差MSW的平方根，即SY/X44.零假设概率分布的具体形式是由假设决定的，假设肯定不止一个。在统计检验中，通常把被检验的那个假设称为零假设(或称原假设，用符号H0表示)，并用它和其他备择假设(用符号H1表示)相对比。45.第一类错误零假设Ho实际上是正确的，却被否定了。46.第二类错误零假设Ho实际上是错误的，却没有被否定。请您删除
11、一下内容，O(_)O谢谢！【Chinas 10 must-see animations】The Chinese animation industry has seen considerable growth in the last several years. It went through a golden age in the late 1970s and 1980s when successively brilliant animation work was produced. Here are 10 must-see classics from Chinas animation out
12、pouring that are not to be missed. Lets recall these colorful images that brought the country great joy. Calabash Brothers Calabash Brothers (Chinese: 葫芦娃) is a Chinese animation TV series produced byShanghaiAnimationFilmStudio. In the 1980s the series was one of the most popular animations in China
13、. It was released at a point when the Chinese animation industry was in a relatively downed state compared to the rest of the international community. Still, the series was translated into 7 different languages. The episodes were produced with a vast amount of paper-cut animations. Black Cat Detecti
14、ve Black Cat Detective (Chinese: 黑猫警长) is a Chinese animation television series produced by the Shanghai Animation Film Studio. It is sometimes known as Mr. Black. The series was originally aired from 1984 to 1987. In June 2006, a rebroadcasting of the original series was announced. Critics bemoan t
15、he series violence, and lack of suitability for childrens education. Proponents of the show claim that it is merely for entertainment. Effendi Effendi, meaning sir andteacher in Turkish, is the respectful name for people who own wisdom and knowledge. The heros real name was Nasreddin. He was wise an
16、d witty and, more importantly, he had the courage to resist the exploitation of noblemen. He was also full of compassion and tried his best to help poor people. Adventure of Shuke and Beita【舒克与贝塔】 Adventure of Shuke and Beita (Chinese: 舒克和贝塔) is a classic animation by Zheng Yuanjie, who is known as
17、King of Fairy Tales in China. Shuke and Beita are two mice who dont want to steal food like other mice. Shuke became a pilot and Beita became a tank driver, and the pair met accidentally and became good friends. Then they befriended a boy named Pipilu. With the help of PiPilu, they co-founded an air
18、line named Shuke Beita Airlines to help other animals. Although there are only 13 episodes in this series, the content is very compact and attractive. The animation shows the preciousness of friendship and how people should be brave when facing difficulties. Even adults recalling this animation toda
19、y can still feel touched by some scenes. Secrets of the Heavenly Book Secrets of the Heavenly Book, (Chinese: 天书奇谈)also referred to as Legend of the Sealed Book or Tales about the Heavenly Book, was released in 1983. The film was produced with rigorous dubbing and fluid combination of music and vivi
20、d animations. The story is based on the classic literature Ping Yao Zhuan, meaning The Suppression of the Demons by Feng Menglong. Yuangong, the deacon, opened the shrine and exposed the holy book to the human world. He carved the books contents on the stone wall of a white cloud cave in the mountai
21、ns. He was then punished with guarding the book for life by the jade emperor for breaking heavens law. In order to pass this holy book to human beings, he would have to get by the antagonist fox. The whole animation is characterized by charming Chinesepainting, including pavilions, ancient architect
22、ure, rippling streams and crowded markets, which fully demonstrate the unique beauty of Chinas natural scenery. Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf【喜洋洋与灰太狼】 Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf (Chinese:喜羊羊与灰太狼) is a Chinese animated television series. The show is about a group of goats living on the Green Pas
23、ture, and the story revolves around a clumsy wolf who wants to eat them. It is a popular domestic animation series and has been adapted intomovies. Nezha Conquers the Dragon King（Chinese: 哪吒闹海）is an outstanding animation issued by the Ministry of Culture in 1979 and is based on an episode from the C
24、hinese mythological novel Fengshen Yanyi. A mother gave birth to a ball of flesh shaped like a lotus bud. The father, Li Jing, chopped open the ball, and beautiful boy, Nezha, sprung out. One day, when Nezha was seven years old, he went to the nearby seashore for a swim and killed the third son of t
25、he Dragon King who was persecuting local residents. The story primarily revolves around the Dragon Kings feud with Nezha over his sons death. Through bravery and wit, Nezha finally broke into the underwater palace and successfully defeated him. The film shows various kinds of attractive sceneries an
26、d the traditional culture of China, such as spectacular mountains, elegant sea waves and exquisite ancient Chinese clothes. It has received a variety of awards. Havoc in Heaven The story of Havoc in Heaven（Chinese: 大闹天宫）is based on the earliest chapters of the classic storyJourney to the West. The m
27、ain character is Sun Wukong, aka the Monkey King, who rebels against the Jade Emperor of heaven. The stylized animation and drums and percussion accompaniment used in this film are heavily influenced byBeijingOpera traditions. The name of the movie became a colloquialism in the Chinese language to d
28、escribe someone making a mess. Regardless that it was an animated film, it still became one of the most influential films in all of Asia. Countless cartoon adaptations that followed have reused the same classic story Journey to the West, yet many consider this 1964 iteration to be the most original,
29、 fitting and memorable, The Golden Monkey Defeats a Demon【金猴降妖】 The Golden Monkey Defeats a Demon (Chinese: 金猴降妖), also referred as The Monkey King Conquers the Demon, is adapted from chapters of the Chinese classics Journey to the West, or Monkey in the Western world. The five-episode animation ser
30、ies tells the story of Monkey King Sun Wukong, who followed Monk Xuan Zangs trip to the West to take the Buddhistic sutra. They met a white bone evil, and the evil transformed human appearances three times to seduce the monk. Twice Monkey King recognized it and brought it down. The monk was unable t
31、o recognize the monster and expelled Sun Wukong. Xuan Zang was then captured by the monster. Fortunately Bajie, another apprentice of Xuan Zang, escaped and persuaded the Monkey King to come rescue the monk. Finally, Sun kills the evil and saves Xuan Zang. The outstanding animation has received a va
32、riety of awards, including the 6th Hundred Flowers Festival Award and the Chicago International Childrens Film Festival Award in 1989. McDull【麦兜】 McDull is a cartoon pig character that was created inHong Kongby Alice Mak and Brian Tse. Although McDull made his first appearances as a supporting chara
33、cter in the McMug comics, McDull has since become a central character in his own right, attracting a huge following in Hong Kong. The first McDull movie McMug Story My Life as McDull documented his life and the relationship between him and his mother.The McMug Story My Life as McDull is also being translated into French and shown in France. In this version, Mak Bing is the mother of McDull, not his father.