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1、Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that c
2、an function alone in a sentenceVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that hav
3、e taken on new meanings.(email、microelectronics、futurology、AIDS、internet、freak out)Content words/notional words(nouns、verbs、adjectives、adverbs and numerals)Functional words/empty words(Prepositions、conjunctions、auxiliaries and articles) on、of、upon、but be a the Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxo
4、n words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern s
5、et:（1）The Balto-slavic Group：（2）The Indo-Iranian Group:(3)The Armenian Group：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group：Albanian.The Western set:(5) The Hellenic Group：Greek;.(6)The Italian Group：(7)The Celtic Group;(8)The Germanic Group：Terminology:Terminology is technical terms used in particular disciplines
6、and academic areas as in music, symphony.Jargon:Jargon is the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves as in business, bottom line for unavoidable result.Slang:Slang is the sub-standard language, which seems to stand
7、between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like jargon and argot, eg. Dough and bread means money.Argot:Argot is the jargon of criminals. Only the sub-cultural groups use it, and outsiders can hardly understand it, eg, Persuader means dagger.d
8、ialectal words:Dialectal words is words used only by speakers of the dialect in question, eg. Beauty in Australia means excellent.Archaisms:Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. Eg, brethren means brother.Neologisms:Neolo
9、gisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Eg, internet.Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function
10、and meaningfree morphemes：free morphemes, also called free root, is the morphemes which have complete meaning and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences, eg. cat, walk.bound morphemes：Bound morphemes is Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to
11、form words, eg, recollection = re+collect+ion.bound root：Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning like a free root, but it is bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes：Affixes is forms that are attached to words or word elements to modif
12、y meaning or function.inflectional affixes:Inflectional affixes, also called inflectional morphemes, is affixes which attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectionalderivational affixes:Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
13、 Root： is the basic form of a word, which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg, international, the root is nation.Stem： is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added in word formation.affixationAffixation, also called derivation, is a way to add word-forming or deriva
14、tional affixes to stems in word formation.Prefixation：Prefixation is a way to add prefixes to stems in word formation. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.Suffixation：Suffixation is a way to suffixes to stems in word formation, and the suffixes mainly change the word
15、 class.Compounding：Compounding, also called composition, is a way to join two or more stems in word formation. Compound is produced in this way. Compound：A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.Conversion: is
16、the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another wordClipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains insteadAcronymy:is
17、 the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Initialism: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)Acronym:Acronyms are words formed
18、from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)Back-formation： Its the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a
19、kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. The sense of an expression is
20、its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.Motivation：Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol / word-form and its meaning.onomatopoeic motivation：Onomatopoeic Motivation is the character of some words whose sounds suggest their
21、 meanings, eg, crow by cocks.Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.semantic motivation：Semantic motivation is the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meanin
22、g of a word. Eg, the mouth of the river.etymological motivation：The meanings of many words relate directly to their origins.Grammatical meanings is the part of the words meaning which indicates grammatical relationships such as speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns and their inflecti
23、onal forms and so on.Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning affective meaning：Affective meaning indicates the
24、speakers attitude towards the person or thing in question, eg, notorious, meaning famous, shows the attitude of disapproval.collocative meaning：Collocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in mea
25、ning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)Homophones（同音异义词
26、）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Polysemy is a fact that a word has more than one meaningSynonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as comple
27、te synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonym
28、s are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.contradictory terms：Contradictory terms are antony
29、ms truly representing oppositeness of meaning, so they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. Eg, male vs female.contrary terms：Contrary terms are antonyms in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes. Eg, rich vs poor.relative terms：Relative terms are words indic
30、ating such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other. Eg, parent vs child.Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example
31、, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of
32、 field theory.The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized
33、.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general
34、sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. 3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refe
35、rs to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain 4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words
36、come to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust 5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Context in its traditional sense
37、refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which em
38、braces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire b
39、ook.分为两类：Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that a
40、re not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they ha
41、ve lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to
42、a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableidioms nominal in nature ：Idioms nominal in nature
43、 have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences.idioms adjectival in nature：Idioms adjectival in nature function as a adjective but are not necessarily composed of adjectives.Idioms verbal in nature can be divided into phrasal verbs and other verb phrases.Idioms adverbial in
44、 nature contains many prepositional phrases and function as adverbial.Eg, tooth and nail, in nothing flat, through thick and thin, in clover, in the clover.Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology