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1、Chapter Three Morphology,3.1 Morphology It refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Chairman chair man Sunflower sun flower Boys boy -s International inter- nation -al Checking check -ing,1. variable Verb (V); Adjective (A); Preposition (P); 2.
2、 minor lexical category Determiner (Det 限定词); Degree word (Deg); Qualifier (Qual 修饰词) ; Auxiliary (Aux); Conjunction (Con).,Three Criteria,These three criteria is helpful in identifying the syntactic categories of words 1. meaning Noun (words that denote human beings and objects, Jack, Mary VS. book
3、, pen) Verb (designate actions, sensations, states: kill, cut VS. smell, taste, hear VS. live, love, hate ) 2. inflection (affixes: plural -s, past tense -ed, progressive -ing, comparative -er, superlative -est ) 3. distribution (what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word) ex: nouns and
4、determiners (a boy); verbs and auxiliary (should come); adjectives and degree words (very good).,4.2.2 phrase categories and their structure,Phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. The category of one phrase is determined by the words category around
5、 which the phrase is built. A noun word, a noun phrase; a verb, a verb phrase; ,The phrase level emerges from the word level,Most common categories: NP (noun phrase), VP (verb phrase), AP (adjective phrase), PP (prepositional phrase) phrase level word level the pretty girl NP N often dream VP V very
6、 kind AP A mainly about PP P,Structure of multi-word phrase,Head(中心成分), specifier（标志成分）, complement（补充成分） head: the word around which the phrase is formed. specifier: the word on the left side of the heads complement: the word on the right side of the heads,4.3 Phrase Structure Rule,Phrase structure
7、 rule: the special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. “ ” means “consists of” or “branches into” NP (Det) N (PP) VP (Qual) V (NP) AP (Deg) A (PP) PP (Deg) P (NP) Mean: An NP can consist of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement A VP
8、,4.3.1 XP rule,To replace the head (N, V, A, P) with X. XP (NP, VP, AP, PP) XP Specifier X (the head) Complement XP rule (Specifier) X (Complement),4.3.2 x- Theory,There is an intermediate level, which are formed by the head and complement between word level and phrase level, it is represented by th
9、e symbol of x-. (X bar rule) XP x- Specifier X Complement,To replace the XP rule by another two-phrase structure rules,A. XP (Specifier) x- B. x- X (complement),4.3.3 coordination rule,Coordinate structure: some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of
10、a conjunction such as and, or Four important properties: a. no limit on the number b. at any level c. of the same type (已存在的) d. identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. (欲添加的),coordination rule,X X *Con X X stands for: “a category at any structure level”, either an X or an XP
11、. Asterisk (*) stands for: “ more categories can occur to the left of the Con”,4.4 phrase elements,1 Specifiers（标志成分）(L) 2 Complements（补充成分）(R) 3 Modifiers（修饰成分）(L/R),4.4.1 Specifiers,Specifiers：mark a phrase boundary. In English, specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases. Th
12、ey are attached to the top level of phrase structure, to the left of the head. The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head. Determiners specifier of Ns Qualifiers : Vs Degree words : As , Ps .,4.4.2 Complements,Complements are themselves phrases and provide
13、information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Subcategorization（次范畴化）: the information about a words complement is included in the head and termed A certain lexical items require a certain type of complement. a story about a sentimental girl,XP Rule
14、(revised) (first time),XP (Specifier) X (Complement*) Note: C is unlimited to the right of the head. A sentence-like construction serves as a C You realize that you are a true man.,The conjunction Complementizers (Cs)（补语化成分） The sentence introduced by the conjunction Complement clause （补语从句） It serv
15、es as Complement phrase (CP)（补语短语） In which matrix clause（主句） Reference Page 50,4.4.3 Modifiers,They specify optionally expressible properties of heads. Modifiers Head Adjective phrases (AP) Ns Adverb or prepositional phrase (AdvP PP) Vs Positions of Modifiers in English: AP AdvP Head AdvP PP,The ex
16、panded XP rule,XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*)(Mod) This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it.,4.5 Sentences (the S rule),the S rule Previously , S NP VP,Nowadays, the heads of sentences: Inflection (Infl), abstract. It can indicate the tense and agreement. It can be re
17、alized by a tense label or an auxiliary. Head = Infl,4.6 Transformation (转换 ),4.6.1 auxiliary movement 4.6.2 Do insertion 4.6.3 deep structure and surface structure 4.6.4 Wh movement 4.6.5 Move and constraints on transformation.,4.6.1 auxiliary movement,Auxiliary is the head of a sentence.,1. Invers
18、ion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. Ex: Will the train arrive? (Yes-No question) Two Steps: normal order to the inverted order a. normally, auxiliary occupies the position of Infl b. invert, move auxiliary to the left of the subject(specifier). Think: Where is a C (Complementizer) in a CP (
19、Complement Phrase) ? And here, in the normal order, where is the auxiliary? So, “Infl” here is moved to the C position. And, in this way, Yes-No question is formed.,to form (Yes-No question) Inversion rule,2. Inversion (revised),Move Infl to C. (complementizer) Noted: Complementizer and inverted aux
20、iliaries are exclusive, cannot appear at the same time at the C position. The teacher wonders CP if-should his student _ _ stay. In a larger sentence, or matrix, inversion in CPs is not applicable.,Trace (marked by e “empty” ) : it records the fact that the moved element comes from the head position
21、 within a S. Head movement: the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase (Infl P) into the head position in another (CP) is also known as ,4.6.2 Do insertion (Yes- no question),(Yes- no question) that contains no overt(明显的) Infl. Do insertion Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl
22、 position. Birds fly. Do birds fly?,4.6.3 deep & surface structure,The XP Rule Deep structure Transformation Surface structure,4.6.4 Wh movement,Wh movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. Wh movement (revised): Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.,4.6.5 Move an
23、d constaints on transformation,Move () any term can be moved to another place constaints on transformation: a. Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. b. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure. What will the little girl tell us a story or a joke ?,Thank You! ,2009,