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1、外文文献Switched-mode power supplyA switched-mode power supply (also switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or simply switcher) is an electronic power supply unit (PSU) that incorporates a switching regulator. While a linear regulator maintains the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power in a pas
2、s power transistor, the switched-mode power supply switches a power transistor between saturation (full on) and cutoff (completely off) with a variable duty cycle whose average is the desired output voltage. It switches at a much-higher frequency (tens to hundreds of kHz) than that of the AC line (m
3、ains), which means that the transformer that it feeds can be much smaller than one connected directly to the line/mains. Switching creates a rectangular waveform that typically goes to the primary of the transformer; typically several secondaries feed rectifiers, series inductors, and filter capacit
4、ors to provide various DC outputs with low ripple.The main advantage of this method is greater efficiency because the switching transistor dissipates little power in the saturated state and the off state compared to the semiconducting state (active region). Other advantages include smaller size and
5、lighter weight (from the elimination of low frequency transformers which have a high weight) and lower heat generation due to higher efficiency. Disadvantages include greater complexity, the generation of high amplitude, high frequency energy that the low-pass filter must block to avoid electromagne
6、tic interference (EMI), and a ripple voltage at the switching frequency and the harmonic frequencies thereof.A note about terminologyAlthough the term power supply has been in use since radios were first powered from the line/mains, that does not mean that it is a source of power, in the sense that
7、a battery provides power. It is simply a device that (usually) accepts commercial AC power and provides one or more DC outputs. It would be more correctly referred to as a power converter, but long usage has established the term.1ClassificationSMPS can be classified into four types according to the
8、input and output waveforms: AC in, DC out: rectifier, off-line converter input stageDC in, DC out: voltage converter, or current converter, or DC to DC converterAC in, AC out: frequency changer, cycloconverter, transformerDC in, AC out: inverterInput rectifier stageIf the SMPS has an AC input, then
9、the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This is called rectification. The rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by the addition of a switch operated either manually or automatically. This is a feature of larger supplies to permit operation from nominally 120 volt or 240 vol
10、t supplies. The rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses have significant high frequency energy which reduces the pow
11、er factor. Special control techniques can be employed by the following SMPS to force the average input current to follow the sinusoidal shape of the AC input voltage thus the designer should try correcting the power factor. An SMPS with a DC input does not require this stage. An SMPS designed for AC
12、 input can often be run from a DC supply (for 230V AC this would be 330V DC), as the DC passes through the rectifier stage unchanged. Its however advisable to consult the manual before trying this, though most supplies are quite capable of such operation even though nothing is mentioned in the docum
13、entation. However, this type of use may be harmful to the rectifier stage as it will only utilize half of diodes in the rectifier for the full load. This may result in overheating of these components, and cause them to fail prematurely.If an input range switch is used, the rectifier stage is usually
14、 configured to operate as a voltage doubler when operating on the low voltage (120 VAC) range and as a straight rectifier when operating on the high voltage (240 V AC) range. If an input range switch is not used, then a full-wave rectifier is usually used and the downstream inverter stage is simply
15、designed to be flexible enough to accept the wide range of dc voltages that will be produced by the rectifier stage. In higher-power SMPSs, some form of automatic range switching may be used.Inverter stageThe inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the 2rectifier stage de
16、scribed above, to AC by running it through a power oscillator, whose output transformer is very small with few windings at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz (kHz). The frequency is usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The output voltage is optically coupled t
17、o the input and thus very tightly controlled. The switching is implemented as a multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier. MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low on-resistance and a high current-handling capacity. Since only the last stage has a large duty cycle, previous stages can be
18、 implemented by bipolar transistors leading to roughly the same efficiency. The second last stage needs to be of a complementary design, where one transistor charges the last MOSFET and another one discharges the MOSFET. A design using a resistor would run idle most of the time and reduce efficiency
19、. All earlier stages do not weight into efficiency because power decreases by a factor of 10 for every stage (going backwards) and thus the earlier stages are responsible for at most 1% of the efficiency. This section refers to the block marked Chopper in the block diagram.Voltage converter and outp
20、ut rectifierIf the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case in mains power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary winding of a high-frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The o
21、utput transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. For output voltages above ten volts or so, ordinary silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower voltages, Schottky diodes are commonly used as the rectifier element
22、s; they have the advantages of faster recovery times than silicon diodes (allowing low-loss operation at higher frequencies) and a lower voltage drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages, MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to Schottky diodes, these have even lower con
23、ducting state voltage drops.The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching frequencies, components with lower capacitance and inductance are needed.Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a transformer. This
24、type includes boost converters, buck converters, and the so called buck-boost converters. These belong to the simplest class of single input, single output converters which utilize one inductor and one active switch. The buck converter reduces the3input voltage in direct proportion to the ratio of c
25、onductive time to the total switchingperiod, called the duty cycle. For example an ideal buck converter with a 10 V inputoperating at a 50% duty cycle will produce an average output voltage of 5 V. Afeedback control loop is employed to regulate the output voltage by varying the dutycycle to compensa
26、te for variations in input voltage. The output voltage of a boostconverter is always greater than the input voltage and the buck-boost output voltage isinverted but can be greater than, equal to, or less than the magnitude of its inputvoltage. There are many variations and extensions to this class o
27、f converters but thesethree form the basis of almost all isolated and non-isolated DC to DC converters. Byadding a second inductor the uk and SEPIC converters can be implemented, or, by adding additional active switches, various bridge converters can be realised.Other types of SMPSs use a capacitor-
28、diode voltage multiplier instead ofinductors and transformers. These are mostly used for generating high voltages at lowcurrents (Cockcroft-Walton generator). The low voltage variant is called charge pump. RegulationA feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a referencevolta
29、ge, which is set manually or electronically to the desired output. If there is anerror in the output voltage, the feedback circuit compensates by adjusting the timingwith which the MOSFETs are switched on and off. This part of the power supply iscalled the switching regulator. The Chopper controller
30、 shown in the block diagramserves this purpose. Depending on design/safety requirements, the controller may ormay not contain an isolation mechanism (such as opto-couplers) to isolate it from theDC output. Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these opto-couplersto tightly control the o
31、utput voltage.Open-loop regulators do not have a feedback circuit. Instead, they rely onfeeding a constant voltage to the input of the transformer or inductor, and assume thatthe output will be correct. Regulated designs compensate for the parasitic capacitanceof the transformer or coil. Monopolar d
32、esigns also compensate for the magnetichysteresis of the core.The feedback circuit needs power to run before it can generate power, so an additional non-switching power-supply for stand-by is added.Transformer designSMPS transformers run at high frequency. Most of the cost savings (and spacesavings)
33、 in off-line power supplies come from the fact that a high frequency4transformer is much smaller than the 50/60 Hz transformers formerly used.There are several differences in the design of transformers for 50 Hz vs 500 kHz. Firstly a low frequency transformer usually transfers energy through its cor
34、e (soft iron), while the (usually ferrite) core of a high frequency transformer limits leakage. Since the waveforms in a SMPS are generally high speed (PWM square waves), the wiring must be capable of supporting high harmonics of the base frequency due to the skin effect, which is a major source of
35、power loss.Power factorSimple off-line switched mode power supplies incorporate a simple full wave rectifier connected to a large energy storing capacitor. Such SMPSs draw current from the AC line in short pulses when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeds the voltage across this capacitor. During
36、the remaining portion of the AC cycle the capacitor provides energy to the power supply.As a result, the input current of such basic switched mode power supplies has high harmonic content and relatively low power factor. This creates extra load on utility lines, increases heating of the utility tran
37、sformers and standard AC electric motors, and may cause stability problems in some applications such as in emergency generator systems or aircraft generators. Harmonics can be removed through the use of filter banks but the filtering is expensive, and the power utility may require a business with a
38、very low power factor to purchase and install the filtering onsite.In 2001 the European Union put into effect the standard IEC/EN61000-3-2 to set limits on the harmonics of the AC input current up to the 40th harmonic for equipment above 75 W. The standard defines four classes of equipment depending
39、 on its type and current waveform. The most rigorous limits (class D) are established for personal computers, computer monitors, and TV receivers. In order to comply with these requirements modern switched-mode power supplies normally include an additional power factor correction (PFC) stage.P uttin
40、g a current regulated boost chopper stage after the off-line rectifier (to charge the storage capacitor) can help correct the power factor, but increases the complexity (and cost).Q uasiresonant ZCS/ZVSA quasiresonant ZCS/ZVS switch (Zero Current/Zero Voltage) is a design where each switch cycle del
41、ivers a quantized packet of energy to the converter output, and switch turn-on and turn-off occurs at zero current and voltage, resulting in an5essentially lossless switch.EfficiencyHigher input voltage and synchronous rectification mode makes the conversion process more efficient. Higher switch fre
42、quency allows component size to be shrunk, but suffer from radio frequency (RF) properties on the other hand. The power consumption of the controller also has to be taken into account.ApplicationsSwitched-mode PSUs in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal inputs, meaning
43、that they can accept power from most mains supplies throughout the world, with rated frequencies from 50 Hz to 60 Hz and voltages from 100 V to 240 V (although a manual voltage range switch may be required). In practice they will operate from a much wider frequency range and often from a DC supply a
44、s well. In 2006, at an Intel Developers Forum, Google engineers proposed the use of a single 12 V supply inside PCs, due to the high efficiency of switch mode supplies directly on the PCB.Most modern desktop and laptop computers already have a DC-DC converter on the motherboard, to step down the vol
45、tage from the PSU or the battery to the CPU core voltage, as low as 0.8 V for a low voltage CPU to 1.2-1.5 V for a desktop CPU as of 2007. Most laptop computers also have a DC-AC inverter to step up the voltage from the battery to drive the backlight, typically around 1000 Vrms.Certain applications,
46、 such as in automobile industry where ordinary cars often use 12 V DC and in some industrial settings, DC supply is chosen to avoid hum and interference and ease the integration of capacitors and batteries used to buffer the voltage. Most small aircraft use 28 V DC, but larger aircraft like Boeing-7
47、47 often use up to 90 kVA 3-phase at 200 V AC 400 Hz, though they often have a DC bus as well. Even fighter planes like F-16 use 400 Hz power. The MD-81 airplane has an 115/200 V 400 Hz AC and 28 V DC power system generated by three 40 kV A AC generators. Helicopters also use the 28 V DC system. Som
48、e submarines like the Soviet Alfa class submarine utilized two synchronous generators providing a variable three-phase current, 2 x 1500 kW, 400 V, 400 Hz. The space shuttle uses three fuel cells generating 30 - 36 V DC. Some is converted into 400 Hz AC power and 28 V DC power. The International Spa
49、ce Station uses 120 V DC power. Larger trucks uses 24 V DC.See also: Avionics, Airplane ground support6In the case of TV sets, for example, one can test the excellent regulation of the power supply by using a variac. For example, in some models made by Philips, the power supply starts when the voltage reaches around 90 volts. From there, one can