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1、A cultural analysis for the differences of address forms in both English and Chinese languagesIntroductionIt has been widely acknowledged that address is a universal phenomenon in all cultures. As the first step in communication and the first message sent to the listener by the speaker, it plays a s
2、ignificant and delicate role as mediators of social relations in communication in peoples daily life. Nowadays, because of the interconnectedness of the world and the emergence of the information age, boundaries of countries are becoming less visible and intercultural communication among people is i
3、ncreasingly paramount and significant as well. Although address is a universal phenomenon, the truth is that there is considerable variation in address form usage, across languages, across national boundaries, that is, the address form patterns and the rules of their use are culture specific. From t
4、he perspective of intercultural communication, however, the discrepancies of address forms in these facets are superficial in comparison with the deep structure of diverse cultures they are derived from. The misunderstandings and contradictions caused by the differences of address forms in intercult
5、ural communication are no exception. According to the principles of intercultural communication, a comparison of cultural diversity reflected in intercultural communication will help trace to its source for the linguistic discrepancies and enhance peoples sensitivity to cultural differences to reduc
6、e or avoid misunderstandings and contradictions in intercultural communication for the purpose of successful communication. In this paper, the present writer will delve into the deep structure of culture to provide a cultural analysis for the differences of address forms in both English and Chinese
7、languages.Chapter One Perspectives of Culture1.1 Definitions of CultureIt is never easy to define culture because it is ubiquitous, multidimensional，complex, and all-pervasive. Therefore, a great number of definitions have been suggested for culture. As early as 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn listed 16
8、4 definitions of culture that they found in the anthropology literature. And, of course, many new definitions have appeared since then. In his paper Intercultural Communication and What it Means to Us, Prof. Hu Wenzhong has discussed the various definitions of culture by anthropologists and linguist
9、s, and he suggested that culture should be divided into three categories, that is high culture, popular culture and deep culture(1988:4/5). Prof. Qi Yucun also noticed the differences and changes in the definition of culture by Western scholars and distinguished between the definition of culture wit
10、h the material aspect and definition of culture excluding the material aspect (胡文仲，1999:58). According to He Minzhi, the concept of culture in intercultural communication studies is culture in its narrow sense. For the purpose of this paper, we are concerned only with those definitions that are clos
11、ely associated with communication.1.2 Functions and Characteristics of CultureFrom its definitions，we can figure out that culture plays a dominant role in peoples social life. As to the characteristics of address forms, regardless of how many definitions we could have examined, there would have been
12、 a great deal of agreement concerning the major characteristics of culture. In view of the subject of this paper, our concern is only with those that are closely associated with the use of address forms. According to the theories of intercultural communication, the single most important characterist
13、ic of culture is that culture is learned consciously or unconsciously. Conscious learning is easier to be understood and explained than is unconscious learning because it is learning at the cognitive level. While culture influences us the instant we are born, we are rarely aware of many of the messa
14、ges that it sends us. Ruben, for example, writes that “the presence of culture is so subtle and pervasive that it simply goes unnoticed and few of us have reason to think about it” (Samovar and Porter, 2000:39). As an integral part of culture, address forms, norms governing them as well as strategie
15、s adopted in the choice of them are on most occasions learned unconsciously as well. Therefore, people in a certain culture use address forms habitually and unconsciously and they are apt to apply the norms and strategies governing the use of address forms to the communication with the addressee fro
16、m a different culture. In her paper Sociolinguistic Rules of Address (1967:227/231), Ervin-Trip writes “among non-kin, the dominant selector of first-naming is whether alter is classified as having the status of a colleague or social acquaintance. Familiarity is not a factor within dyads of the same
17、 age and rank, and there are no there are no options”, because “one is requires to first-name colleagues even though they are disliked”. This can be considered as a dominant norm dictating the use of first name in American English. It is considered natural for an American to first name his Chinese c
18、olleague who, in particular the one in his senior age, will feel uncomfortable or even angry by this address. Another major characteristic of culture is that culture is subject to change. According to Savomar & Porter (2000:44), cultures are dynamic systems that do not exist in a vacuum, so they are
19、 subject to change though the core part of culture is deeply rooted in a nations tradition and ideology and resistant to any change. Being a subsystem of language, address forms as well as the norms governing them also undergo continuous change. As mentioned above, some general honorific titles in C
20、hinese have gone through dramatic change since 1949, such as xiansheng, xiaojie, taitai and so on. While the increasing use of first name in English culture is also an indicator of peoples increasing demand for solidarity relationship.Chapter Two The Relationship of Culture and LanguageFirst of all,
21、 it should be noted that it is impossible to separate our use of language from our culture. According to the definition of language provided by Samovar and Porter (2000:122), language is a set of symbols and rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of peopl
22、e. One language is different from anther in not only the forms and sounds but the rules for using those forms and sounds. It is culture that determines the forms, sounds and rules for using them. To a large degree, our language behavior is shaped and prescribed by our culture. Thats why it is unanim
23、ously agreed by scholars that studying its culture is a good way to learn a language.On the other hand, language is not only a reflection of culture but also exerts great influence on culture. As a mirror image of culture, the use of language indicates the beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, hierar
24、chies, and religions of a particular culture. In addition, language also shapes the process by which people are introduced to order of the physical and social environment. In a word, as Samovar and Porter conclude, culture influences language, and language reflects culture.Chapter Three The Influenc
25、e of Culture on Address FormsBeing a subsystem of language, address forms are also learned and under the strongest influence of culture, hence they are subject to cultural interpretation .As we have seen, cultures are extremely complex and consist of numerous interrelated cultural orientations inclu
26、ding beliefs, values, attitudes, norms, and material aspects. Despite these different cultural orientations, however, there is a useful term that allows us to talk about these orientations collectively instead of separately. That is Cultural Patterns which, refer to both the conditions that contribu
27、te to the way in which people perceive and think about the world, and the manner in which they live in that world. Before our discussion of the main Cultural Patterns of English and Chinese, it should be noted that the Cultural Patterns that can be said to stand for the whole country must be limited
28、 to the dominant culture in each country. In other words，there are literally hundreds of Cultural Patterns found in every culture, but our discussion is only associated with those Patterns that are most manifest during interaction. In addition, culture changes and so do the values of the culture tho
29、ugh the deep structure of a culture is resistant to change. 3.1 The Main Cultural Patterns of American and Its influence on Address Forms in EnglishIn the Western society, especially English-speaking communities such as the United States, Australia, Great Britain, Canada and so on, individualism are
30、 the important value orientation, and the single most important cultural pattern. As is the case with the most cultural patterns, the origin of this value has had a long history.Broadly speaking, individualism refers to the doctrine that each individual is unique, special, completely different from
31、all other individuals, and the basic unit of nature. The main characteristics of individualism summarized by Samovar & Porter read as follows: An “I” consciousness prevails. Competition rather than cooperation is encouraged; personal goals take precedence over group goals; people tend not to be emot
32、ionally dependent on organizations and institutions. Individual initiative, achievement and decision-making are valued in these cultures. Therefore, as some scholars point out, the only one principle in the West that regulates interpersonal relationship is individualism. Closely related to individua
33、lism is the value of equality, which is emphasized in everything from government (everyone has the right to vote) to social relationships. Most of the primary social relationships within a family tend to advance equality rather than hierarchy. Formality is not important and children are often treate
34、d as adults. Most friendships and co-workers are also treated as equals whereas status is regarded as undemocratic. This lays the foundation for the establishment of solidarity relationship as the main relationship in the social interactions in the West. Influenced by individualism and equality orie
35、ntation in the Western culture, relationship is not commonly made use of. What is highly valued in English is instrumental interaction and fair play in social interactions and transactions. Therefore, it is unnecessary for people in the English-speaking societies to use official titles or occupation
36、al titles which can indicate the addressees rank or importance in the hierarchical societies to show their respect to the addressees position or to fawn on the addressee. As Hu Wenzhong (1991:5/6) point out, a key belief of people in individualistic cultures is that the smallest unit of survival is
37、the individual. Equality, independence and freedom of individuals have long been a value orientation in the English culture. Everybody is equal and should be treated equally without reference to his age and generation. Kin terms used non-kin as indications of hierarchy in age or generation are not u
38、sed in the English culture. For example, a child will not call a strange old man by grandpa in the English-speaking communities. On the contrary, social address forms are usually adopted within the family to indicate independence and equality by the native English speakers. For instance, Mr. or Mrs.
39、 plus last name or given name are usually adopted by the addressees son-in-law or daughter-in-law.3.2 The Main Cultural Patterns of Chinese and Its Influence on Address Forms in Chinese Collectivism, according to the findings of Triandis and others, is the most important cultural pattern of China, P
40、akistan, Colombia, Venezuela etc. It is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups. People count on their in-groups (relatives, clans, organizations) to look after them, and in exchange for that they owe absolute loyalty to the group. While an excel
41、lent summary of the main characteristics of collectivism is offered by Samovar & Porter:A “we” consciousness prevails. The individual is emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions; the culture emphasizes belonging to organizations; organizations invade private life and the clans; and in
42、dividuals trust group decisions.As is the case with all cultural patterns, collectivism influences a number of communication variables. The emphasis on kinship, interpersonal connects, respect for elders and hierarchy, the maintenance of good feelings between self and others is a reflection of colle
43、ctivism in Chinese.Collectivism, like so many aspects of culture, has deep historical roots. For thousands of years in the Chinese culture, peoples thought and behavior have been under the strong influence of the ethical concept based on the patriarchal clan system as well as the hierarchical and ve
44、rtical social structure of the feudal society. Ren and Li, as Jia Yuxin says (2003:506-507), are the core concept of Confucianism, and Li specifies Five Constant Relationship that constitutes the warp and woof of social life. These relationships are asymmetrical. Rulers should be benevolent, subject
45、s loyal; parents be loving, children reverential; elder siblings gentle, younger siblings respectful; husbands good, wives obedient. Three of these five relationships pertain within the family while two are extensions of family relationships. These relationships are actually indicative of the import
46、ance of family institution in Chinese peoples social life.In ancient times, the vertical and asymmetrical relationships are reinforced by advocating obedience of the lower position to those who are in the society. In terms of interpersonal relationship, it has become an unwritten rule that authority
47、 and power relationship should be valued in daily transactions, whereas what authority or power refers to varies with time. Nowadays it may include, for example, father in a family, leaders at different levels, the elder and the aged and even people who are considered to be useful in the society. Ho
48、wever, though culture and the values of culture do change, the deep structure of a culture is resistant to change. That is why the hierarchical nature of society in China is basically accepted as part of our social structure, practice that the 1949 Revolution has somehow failed to remove.It is these
49、 cultural orientations that determine the unique characteristics of Chinese address forms. In other words, the nonreciprocal use of address forms is widespread in Chinese peoples daily communication though both may be equals. Official titles or occupational titles are often used when the posts or occupations can indicate the hearers position or achievements; Kin terms are used frequently to address non-Kin on informal occasions; the reciprocal use of FN is strictly confined to close friends or colleague, especially tho