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1、Captioning and Subtitling: Undervalued Language Learning StrategiesMartine Danan AbstractAudiovisual material enhanced with captions or interlingual subtitles is a particularly powerful pedagogical tool which can help improve the listening comprehension skills of second-language learners. Captioning
2、 facilitates language learning by helping students visualize what they hear, especially if the input is not too far beyond their linguistic ability. Subtitling can also increase language comprehension and leads to additional cognitive benefits, such as greater depth of processing. However, learners
3、often need to be trained to develop active viewing strategies for an efficient use of captioned and subtitled material. Multimedia can offer an even wider range of strategies to learners, who can control access to either captions or subtitles.Keywords/Mots-cls: captioning, language comprehension, la
4、nguage learning, learning strategies, subtitlesRsumLaudiovisuel, lorsquil est accompagn par lcrit est un puissant moyen pdagogique qui peut amliorer les comptences en comprhension orale des apprenants de langue seconde. Ainsi, le sous-titrage intralinguistique, surtout sil ne va pas au-del des conna
5、issances dj matrises, facilite lapprentissage en aidant visualiser ce quon entend. Quant aux sous-titres interlinguistiques, ils peuvent augmenter non seulement les capacits de comprhension, mais aussi les acquis cognitifs, par exemple en approfondissant les processus de traitement de linformation l
6、inguistique. Cependant, on doit souvent former les apprenants des stratgies actives de perception pour arriver une meilleure utilisation de ces crits lcran. Avec les multimdias, on peut envisager dautres stratgies dacquisition.1 In countries where viewers rarely watch subtitled programs, for example
7、 in the United States, language students often experience feelings of guilt or annoyance when first exposed to subtitles, while language teachers themselves tend to be openly hostile to their use. In such cases, subtitles are most commonly viewed as distracting: They are accused of encouraging viewe
8、rs to rely on the written text, taking attention away from the actual spoken language, and even fostering a form of laziness bordering on cheating. Yet, many Europeans claim to have learned English from their regular exposure to subtitled American films and television programs. So how much of this l
9、earning can be attributed to the help of subtitles, and should greater effort be made to encourage the use of subtitled audiovisual material to foster second or foreign-language acquisition in and outside the classroom?2 A partial answer to this question can be found in a number of recent empirical
10、studies examining ways in which standard subtitling (i.e. interlingual, translation subtitles in the native language), but also other forms of subtitling, can actually improve the effectiveness of audiovisual presentations and develop viewers language skills. The bulk of the research has focused on
11、the use of captions (called teletext subtitles in Europe, with subtitles in the same language as the sound track), which are primarily used in the context of the hard-of-hearing population. We will first review the findings of the most significant experiments dealing with the relationship between se
12、cond-language acquisition and captions (also labeled bimodal, same-language, unilingual, or intralingual subtitles in scholarly literature), especially in relation to the processing of the spoken language. But we will also point to the limitations of captions in some instances and argue that standar
13、d subtitling can provide language learners with additional valuable assistance, as in the case of the incidental language learning occurring in Europe with spectators of American films. However, to derive the greatest benefits of both captions and subtitles, we will finally stress the importance of
14、teaching students how to consciously adopt effective learning strategies, which ultimately play a fundamental role in improved listening skills and successful language acquisition.1. Benefits and Limitations of Audiovisual Material3 It is now commonplace to say that audiovisual material, with its ri
15、ch context, is a powerful instructional tool known to have a motivational, attentional, and affective impact on viewers, which in turn facilitates auditory processing (Baltova, 1994: 510-1). In addition, film, television, video, and now digitized images usually expose students to larger amounts of a
16、uthentic oral language input, which in the long run should improve listening comprehension in face-to-face interaction with native speakers (Herron et. al., 1995).4 Indeed, audiovisual media are closer to real life because visual clues and context make it possible to “view” the message as much as li
17、sten to it (Baltova, 1994: 508). As a number of researchers have shown, listening comprehension is an “active cognitive process” involving “speculating and predicting” rather than individual sound deciphering because incomplete acoustic input often necessitates filling in missing information (Noblit
18、t, 1995). Comprehension is also influenced by visual information and cultural knowledge (for example interpreting facial expressions), as lip-reading research has demonstrated (Baltova, 1994: 509). The positive effect of visual clues was confirmed by an experiment involving 53 intermediate-level Gra
19、de 8 Canadian pupils in a core French program. Those who watched a 15-minute clip in the video-and-sound condition obtained scores almost twice as good as in the sound-only condition (Baltova, 1994: 511, 513).5 However, beyond global understanding, visual clues do not necessarily assist with the com
20、prehension of the actual spoken text, as this experiment also demonstrated. In fact, students performance in the video-and-sound condition was very similar to results in the silent viewing condition (Baltova, 1994: 513). In order to analyze actual listening comprehension gains, Baltova set up a seco
21、nd experiment comparing the same video-and-sound condition with the sound-only treatment but focusing on a more text-dependent comprehension test. This particular test revealed no significant difference between the two groups and confirmed the poor level of distinct textual understanding (Baltova, 1
22、994: 516). These results point to the limitations of video alone and the need to find techniques, such as captioning and subtitling, to improve the pedagogical effectiveness of the medium.2. Listening Comprehension Benefits Through Captioning6 Various studies have demonstrated the positive effects o
23、f captioning on productive skills such as verbatim recall and retention, reuse of vocabulary in the proper context, as well as communicative performance in specific oral and written communication tasks (Vanderplank, 1988: 276; Baltova, 1999: 38; Garza, 1991: 245; Borras & Lafayette, 1994: 63, 65, 68
24、; Neuman & Koskinen, 1992: 102). However, since the main objection to the pedagogical use of subtitles stems from the perception that they hinder the development of receptive skills, the main goal of this article is to examine whether captions and subtitles can also improve listening comprehension.7
25、 General ideas can often be made understandable through images alone or even advanced organizers such as oral and written summaries or video clips, but captions have proven to be more beneficial for the comprehension of details pertaining to characters and plot (Chiquito, 1995: 219; Chung, 1999: 300
26、-1). In terms of comprehension, captions can in fact assist students at different levels of linguistic ability. Markham had 76 advanced, intermediate, and beginning ESL students in an American university watch two 2H and 4H-minute-long educational television programs. The results of the multiple-cho
27、ice comprehension tests based on the vocabulary and syntax of the captions showed that within each level, responses were more accurate when captions had been available. Thus captions helped students perform beyond their proficiency level (Markham, 1989: 39, 41).8 In addition to comprehension, captio
28、ns can help with word recognition and vocabulary building. Neuman and Koskinen conducted a nine-week experiment with 129 seventh and eighth grade ESL students (mostly at an advanced level) watching nine 5- to 8-minute long segments of an American children-oriented science production. The researchers
29、 found that captioning was more beneficial to vocabulary recognition and acquisition than traditional television watching, or reading while listening. A series of increasingly complex tests demonstrated the beneficial effects of captions. These tests ranged from weekly word recognition exercises whi
30、ch entailed distinguishing written target words from nonword distractors, to sentence anomaly exercises testing word comprehension in context, and on the most difficult level, meaning identification of words presented in isolation (Neuman & Koskinen, 1992: 101).9 Even audio text strongly supported b
31、y images that undoubtedly clarify and contextualize it can become more comprehensible with captions. Garza conducted an experiment comparing the comprehension ability of 70 high-intermediate/low-advanced ESL learners as well as 40 third/fourth year American university students of Russian, who viewed
32、 five discursive types of 2- to 4-minute-long videos with and without captions. Subjects were tested through multiple-choice content-based questionnaires requiring the identification of target-language “informational paraphrases, basic deductions, or synonym identification” of a term made visually e
33、xplicit in the video segment. Results revealed significantly improved performance for the captioned condition in both language groups. Thus, captions may help make the audio input more intelligible by bridging the gap between reading comprehension skills, which are usually more developed, and listen
34、ing comprehension (Garza, 1991: 241-243, 246).10 Skeptics may still contend that even if captioning allows for language gains and improved comprehension, students are not being truly trained to develop their listening skills without written support. To respond to these objections, we will now turn t
35、o a few other studies which have attempted to measure pure listening comprehension gains, tested independently of any written components.11 To examine the effect of captioning on aural word recognition skills, Markham designed another experiment involving multiple-choice tests administered orally. 1
36、18 advanced ESL students watched two short video programs (12 and 13 minutes) with or without captions. In the subsequent listening tests, subjects heard sentences directly taken from the script and immediately followed by four single words (one key word which belonged to a sentence just heard and t
37、hree distractors) presented orally too. The tests showed that the availability of subtitles during the screening significantly improved the students ability to identify the key words when they subsequently heard them again (Markham, 1999: 323-4).12 Some may still argue that the improved listening co
38、mprehension resulting from the specific context of a captioned audiovisual program does not necessarily prove students ability to better comprehend new scenes without captions. To test how subtitling affected listening ability regardless of semantic information, so as to assess recognition memory in
39、 relation to sound alone, Bird and Williams focused on the implicit and explicit learning of spoken words and nonwords. Implicit learning pertained to auditory word recognition, while explicit learning referred to the intentional recollection and conscious retention of aural stimuli. A first experim
40、ent with 16 English native and 16 advanced nonnative speakers demonstrated that subjects in the captioned condition were better able to implicitly retain the phonological information they had just processed. They also showed superior explicit recognition memory when asked to aurally identify words t
41、hat had been presented in a previous phase. A second experiment with 24 advanced ESL students found that captioning had a beneficial effect on word recognition and implicit learning of nonword targets paired with two rhyming and two nonrhyming aural cues, especially in the rhyme condition. Thus, cap
42、tioning clearly aids with the phonological visualization of aural cues in the minds of listeners, who become more certain of ambiguous input, can more accurately form a memory trace of the words, and can later more easily identify identical sounds without textual support (Bird & Williams, 2002).13 I
43、n short, captioning seems to improve the actual language processing ability of second-language learners, who could be described as “hard of listening” (Vanderplank, 1988: 272). The benefits of this “hearing aid” become even clearer over time, as shown by longer-term experiments. One study over an 11
44、-week period involved grades 5 and 6 Canadian pupils who had attended a French immersion program since kindergarten. Tests measuring phrase form, contextual meaning, and comprehension demonstrated that captioning increased in effectiveness through time (Lambert & Holobow, 1984: 3). A long-term proto
45、col analysis in another study may explain this improved effectiveness. 15 European ESL students ranging from high-intermediate to superior, and 8 Arabic ESL students from low-intermediate to advanced, were asked to watch captioned programs one hour a week over a nine-week period while reflecting on
46、the experience. After a few hours of practice with the captions, the subjects felt that they were able to process longer stretches of verbal and written texts, i.e. their “chunking ability” had improved (Vanderplank, 1988: 274-5). Thanks to improved processing, subjects also remarked on their abilit
47、y to “find,” note, ask about phrases totally new to them, and extract terminology (Vanderplank, 1988: 275; Vanderplank, 1990: 225).3. Limitations of Captioning and Need for Comprehensible Input14 In spite of the beneficial aspects described above, captioning may not be suitable for all materials and
48、 viewers at all levels of language proficiency. In particular, it may be helpful to beginners only if the material is carefully adapted to their level and contains many familiar phrases that can be activated and reinforced by the audiovisual presentation. This point was illustrated by an experiment
49、in which full text or keyword captioning was added to the authentic language video clips designed to accompany a French beginning textbook. Guillory, who tested 202 American subjects in second semester French classes, found that even with captions the comprehension mean scores for two video clips from this program were at best 72%. If the material is too advanced, as in this case with nearly 28% of the words used in the video not listed in the textbook glossary, captio