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1、Opioid Analgesics,By Ryan Richards,Overview of Presentation,Pain and the Pain management Brief History of Opium Endogenous Opioid Peptides Chemical Structure and Binding Features of Opioid Analgesics Types of Opioid Receptors Types of Opioid Analgesics The Future of Opioid Analgesics,“The uncomforta
2、ble sensation of pain has caused man to seek an explanation, using contemporary concepts to find a reason for this discomfort (1).”,What is Pain? Pain can be defined as a somatic sensation of acute discomfort, a symptom of some physical hurt or disorder, or even emotional distress. It is a common hu
3、man experience therefore the idea of pain and pain management appear throughout history,What is Pain?,Pain is a crucial aspect of the bodys defense mechanisms Pain “is a part of a rapid warning relay instruction the motor neurons of the central nervous system to minimize detected physical harm (2).”
4、 Pain can be classified into two types,Acute Pain,Acute pain is short-term pain or pain with an easily identifiable cause Acute pain “is the bodys warning of present damage to tissue or disease. It is often fast and sharp followed by aching pain. Acute pain is centralized in one area before becoming
5、 somewhat spread out. This type of pain responds well to medications (2).”,Chronic Pain,Chronic pain is pain that last much longer than pain normally would with a particular injury. Chronic pain can be constant or intermittent and is generally harder to treat than acute pain. Pain can also be groupe
6、d by its source and related pain detecting neurons such as cutaneous pain, somatic pain, visceral pain, and neuropathic pain Opioid Analgesics can be used to treat many types of pain,What Causes Pain?,Pain is caused by the stimulation of pain receptors which are free nerve endings. “Nocireceptors ar
7、e pain receptors that are located outside the spinal column in the dorsal root ganglion and are named based upon their appearance at their sensory ends. These sensory endings look like the branches of small bushes( 2).” There are two types of nocireceptors that mediate fast or slow pain signals The
8、perception of pain is when these receptors are stimulated and they transmit signal to the central nervous system via sensory neurons in the spinal cord.,http:/staff.washington.edu/chudler/gif/spiback1.gif,These neurons release excitatory neurotransmitters which relay signals from one neuron to anoth
9、er. “The signals are sent to the thalamus, in which pain perception occurs. From the thalamus, the signal travels to the somatosensory cortex in the cerebrum, at which point the individual becomes fully aware of the pain (2).”,Pain Signaling,What is Analgesia?,Analgesia simply means the absence of p
10、ain without loosing consciousness. “The analgesia system is mediated by 3 major components: the periaquaductal grey matter (in the midbrain), the nucleus raphe magnus (in the medulla), and the pain inhibitory neurons within the dorsal horns of the spinal cord, which act to inhibit pain-transmitting
11、neurons also located in the spinal dorsal horn. (2)” These areas are the areas in which the chemical mechanisms of opioid analgesics will take place,Locations involved in Pain Signaling and Analgesia,http:/,History Of Opium,Opiates are one of the oldest types of drugs in history Undisputed reference
12、 to opium found in writings (Theophrastus) from the third century BC Use of Opium recorded in China and Mesopotamia over 2000 years ago Greeks dedicated the Opium poppy to the Gods of Death (Thanatos), Sleep (Hypnos), and Dreams (Morpheus) Sixteenth Century is the first reported use of Opium for its
13、 Analgesic qualities Preparations of opium in the form of elixirs became increasingly popular in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries By the 19th century Opium in various forms was considered “as legitimate as tobacco or tea (3).”,The Opium Wars,Opiates were mainly cultivated in the regions of Persia,
14、 India, Malaysia, and China As the Use of Opium became widespread its trade became a major industry In the late 18th century the Chinese government puts a ban on opium because of its unwanted and addicting effects Opium use and trade remains rampant in Southern China primarily with the Dutch East In
15、dian Company In 1840, Chinese government ceases about 3 millions pounds of opium from British Merchants in an attempt to extinguish opium trade This results in a series of Wars that ended in 1860,What is an Opioid?,Opioids are drugs derived from or related to the Opium Opium is derived from the juic
16、e of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum Opium contains over twenty distinct alkaloids (morphine was the first alkaloid of opium to be isolated in 1806) By the late 19th century use of these “pure” opium derivatives spread throughout the medical world, however, the method by which these drugs works
17、was unknown.,Endogenous Opioid Peptides,It was not until the 1970s that research allowed us to understand how the opioid drugs work by studying the endogenous opioid system In 1973 researchers determined the existence of opiate binding sites in the brain through the use of radioligand-binding assays
18、 In 1975, an endogenous opiate-like factor called enkephalin was found and shortly after this two more classes of endogenous opiate peptides were isolated, the dynophorins and the endorphins.,Endogenous Opioid Peptides,“Endogenous opioid peptides are the naturally occurring ligands for opioid recept
19、ors. The term endorphin is used synonymously with endogenous opioid peptides but also refers to a specific endogenous opioid, the Beta-endorphin (4).” These peptides are produced by the pituitary gland and by the hypothalamus Opioid peptides are found in the central nervous system mainly in limbic a
20、nd brainstem areas associated with pain reception, and the certain areas of the spinal cord. Their distribution corresponds to “areas of the human brain where electrical stimulation can relieve pain (4).”,Endogenous Opioid Peptides,These natural peptides work as ligands that interact with their spec
21、ific receptors causing structural changes that result in other changes in the effected neuron such as the opening or closing of ion gated channels or the activation or deactivation of certain enzymes. Opioid peptides work by modulating the release and uptake of specific neurotrasmitters in the neuro
22、ns they are found. This alteration of neurochemical balance creates a vast amount of possible physiological effects, one of which is analgesia. All of the endogenous opioid peptides are derived from a corresponding precursor proteins and all share a common amino-terminal sequence which is called the
23、 “opioid motif.”,The Opioid Receptors,Shortly after the discovery and observance of endogenous opioid peptides, multiple classes of unique opioid receptors were found There are four main opioid receptors, the mu receptor, the delta receptor, the kappa receptor, and the ORL-1 receptor. The sigma rece
24、ptors were once thought to be opioid receptors ,however, pharmacological testing indicated that the sigma receptors were activated by drugs completely unrelated to the opioids The receptors are found on cell membranes of cells in the nervous system (neurons) and are found in unique distributions and
25、 have different effects.,The Anatomy of a Neuron,The -receptor,Morphine and its analogues bind most strongly to this receptor and in fact most used opioid analgesic drugs are selective for this specific receptor type. When and opioid binds to the mu-receptor it produces the effects of analgesia. The
26、 mu-receptor is also associated with other effects such as “sedation, reduced blood pressure, itching, nausea, euphoria, decreased respiration, miosis (constricted pupils) and decreased bowel motility often leading to constipation (5).” When an opioid binds to the mu-receptor it induces a change in
27、shape which in turn induces a change in the ion channels of the associated cell membrane,The -receptor,The mu-receptor opens up the ion channel allowing potassium ions to flow out of the cell causing hyperpolarization of the membrane potential. This hyperpolarization causes it to become extremely di
28、fficult for an action potential to be reached and therefore the firing of the neuron become far less frequent and the neurons excitability decreases (3). The release of potassium ions also causes less calcium ions to enter the terminal end of the neuron. This is where neurotransmitters are stored an
29、d as a result this significantly reduces neurotransmitter release.,The -receptor,These effects of a ligand binding to a mu-receptor essentially turn off the neuron and in doing so block the relaying of pain signals from pain receptors. They are seen in significant amounts in all areas of the central
30、 nervous system associated with pain control There are two subtypes of the mu-receptor. The 1-receptors seem to be associated with its analgesic activities and the 2-receptors seem to be associated with the effects of respiratory depression and constipation. Respiratory depression is considered the
31、deadly side effect of opioid analgesic drugs. It is the cause of death in all overdose cases.,The -receptor,The kappa receptor is very different from the mu-receptor in the fact that there are not many significant agonist of the kappa receptor known The kappa receptor is associated directly with ana
32、lgesia and sedation but with none of the undesired side effects associated with the mu receptor. Because of this, it is an area of focus in current research and shows promise in the development of a safer analgesic.,The -receptor,When and agonist or ligand binds to the kappa receptor it induces a co
33、nformational change that results directly in the closing of the calcium ion channels in the terminal of the neuron and the neuron can not relay pain messages. Another difference between the kappa and mu receptors is that the kappa receptors only effect nerves that relay “pain produced by non-thermal
34、 stimuli (3),” and mu receptors inhibit all pain signals. There are three subtypes of the kappa receptor however the difference between these subtypes is not clearly known.,The -receptor,The delta receptor is the strongest binding site of the bodys natural pain killer, the class of opioid peptides c
35、alled the enkephalins. Morphine and other commonly used opioid analgesics also bind to this receptor strongly and act as an agonist much like they do with the mu receptor. The delta receptor is a G-protein linked receptor. When an agonist binds to the delta receptor is induces a conformational chang
36、e that causes the activation of a specific G-protein.,The -receptor,This G-protein “inhibits the membrane bound enzyme adenylate cyclase and prevents the synthesis of cAMP. The transmission of the pain signal requires cAMP to act as a secondary messenger, and so inhibition of this enzyme blocks the
37、signal ( 3).” The delta receptor is found in larger cells than the other receptors and seems to be important in spinal analgesia.,The ORL-1 receptor,the ORL-1 receptor or the “orphan” receptor was very recently discovered. The natural opioid peptide that is a ligand for this receptor is nociceptin w
38、hich is also called orphanin. The ORL-1 receptor is associated with many different biological effects such as memory processes, cardiovascular function, and renal function. It is thought to have effects on dopamine levels and is associated with neurotransmitter release during anxiety.,Structure of O
39、pioids,In order to examine important structural features of Opioid analgesics, which are all derived from the opiate structure, we will refer to the structure of morphine, the first identified alkaloid.,Structure of Opioids,The structure of morphine consists of five rings forming a T-shaped molecule
40、 The important binding groups on morphine are the phenol, the aromatic ring, and the ionized amine. These groups are found in all Opioid analgesics. . “A free phenol group is crucial for analgesic activity (3).” The aromatic ring of the opiate also seems to be integral to its function as compounds t
41、hat lack the aromatic ring show no analgesic activity. The ionized amine also plays an important role in its activity and is common in opioid structure. In experiments where the Nitrogen was replaced by a Carbon no analgesic activity was found. It interacts with certain analgesic receptors in its io
42、nized form.,Binding of Opioids,. Before specific opioid receptors were discovered in 1973 by the means of new autoradiographic techniques, it was unknown exactly how the opiate alkaloids interacted to produce the physiological effects associated with the drugs. It was assumed that Opioids binding to
43、 a single, rigid, analgesic receptor. The Beckett-Casy Hypothesis proposed a method of binding of Opioid drugs to this receptor,The Beckett-Casy Hypothesis,Positively charged nitrogen group of opioid will form an ionic bond with anionic group of receptor In order to accomplish this “there must be a
44、basic nitrogen group which is then ionized at physiological pH for form a positively charged group (3), because the positively charged group could not cross the blood brain barrier. This would result in the opioids having a pKa of around 7.8 to 8.9, which is consistent with all opioid analgesics,The
45、 Beckett-Casy Hypothesis,The hypothesis also proposes van der Waals interaction between the aromatic ring and a hydrophobic region of the binding site This suggests a close spatial relationship between the aromatic ring of the opioid and the surface of the binding site,The Beckett-Casy Hypothesis,Th
46、e hypothesis also suggests hydrogen bonding with the phenol group of the opioid and the receptor binding site It also proposes that the receptor possesses a unique structural feature that allows the ethylene bridge of the opioid to snugly fit into the binding site and in doing so properly aligning t
47、he rest of the molecule with the associated binding regions.,The Beckett-Casy Hypothesis,Although the discovery of multiple unique opioid receptors in 1973 violated the assumption of the hypothesis that there was a single, rigid binding site. The binding mechanisms proposed remain valid possible int
48、eractions It is evident that the phenol group, the ionized amine, and the aromatic ring are very important structural features of the opioids.,MORPHINE,Morphine is the golden standard among opioid analgesics to which the structure and strengths of all other drugs are compared It is the primary ingre
49、dient in opium and was isolated in 1806 Morphine has strong binding affinity for the mu and delta opioid receptors and some weak affinity for the kappa receptor,MORPHINE,Morphine is administered in subcutaneous, intravenous or epidural injections or orally in the form of a solution (however this for
50、m is far less potent). Morphine acts extremely fast and crosses the blood brain barrier quickly but is not as fast acting lipid-soluble opioids such as codeine or heroin.,Morphine Metabolism,Once morphine is administered about one third of it become bound to proteins in the plasma The major pathway