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1、CONVERSATION ANALYSIS,1,教书育人,04.12.2006,Sindy Kermer Melanie Mller,2,1 What is conversation? a way of using language socially, of “doing things with words” an interaction of two or more participants number of participants and length of contribution to the conversation can vary open-ended, has the po
2、tential to develop in any way planned occasions for speaking, such as meetings or debates,2,教书育人,WHAT IS CONVERSATION ANALYSIS?,CA is the study of recorded, naturally occurring talk-in-interaction. Its object of study is the interactional organization of social activities. CA aims at discovering how
3、 participants understand and respond to one another in their turns at talk, with a central focus on how sequences of actions are generated. CA is only marginally interested in language as such, but first and foremost in language as a practical social accomplishment.,3,教书育人,Background to CA, Harold G
4、arfinkel, 1960s, ethnomethodological/ sociological approach organization of talk-in-interaction empirical approach which avoids premature theory construction methods are inductive- search for recurring patterns gathering data and analysis of data of actual pieces of language, real-life-conversations
5、 data-driven theorizing,4,教书育人,MindMap,Conversational Analysis,Practical Examples Conversations between friends Relationship counselling sessions Legal hearings,Fields Ethnomethodology Discursive Psychology Qualitative Research,People Harvey Sacks Emanuel Schegloff,5,教书育人,Audio/video recordings Tran
6、scripts Analyses are both context-free = (-) ethnographic context context-renewing = (+) conversational context,6,教书育人, avoids analyses based on a single text as many instances as possible of some particular phenomenon examined across texts discover the systematic properties of the sequential organi
7、zation of talk and the ways in which utterances are designed to manage such sequences,7,教书育人,Basic notions,turn: basic unit of conversation may contain many illocutions, is everything a speaker communicates during a unit of conversation turn-taking: basic form of organization for conversation speake
8、r-change occurs mostly, one speaker talks at a time transition from one turn to the next without gap or overlap turn order and size not fixed,8,教书育人,Turn-Taking length and topic of contribution not specified in advance current speaker may select another speaker or parties may self-select in starting
9、 to talk transition from one turn to the next without gap or overlap turn order and size not fixed repair mechanisms: deal with turn-taking errors and violations Size of turns is variable but there is a tendency toward minimalization,9,教书育人,Transition Relevance Places (TRP) transition: a relay of th
10、e right to speak to the next speaker mechanisms of selection (self- or other-) TRP can be exploited by the speaker holding the floor directly, for the purpose of allocating the right to speak to a next speaker of his/her choice indirectly, by throwing the floor wide open to whoever speaker may just
11、ignore the TRP and continue past,10,教书育人,A Transition Relevance Place (TRP) is a point at which a turn change can occur. Typical techniques for selecting next speaker: Question (offer or request) + address term Tagged assertion + address feature Repair initiators Who? You did what? Pardon?,11,教书育人,P
12、reviewing TRPs Why are we often able to predict the end of somebodys speech? Adjacency Pairs changes of speed delivery intonation word-choice patterns,12,教书育人,04.12.2006,Sindy Kermer Melanie Mller,13,Adjacency Pairs discovery that became a starting point for a whole new approach (similar as speech a
13、cts to pragmatics) two subsequent utterances constituting a conversational exchange distinction between first pair part and second pair part,13,教书育人,Adjacency Pairs: Examples Complaint/denialKen : Hey yuh took my chair by the way an I dont think that was very niceAl: I didnt take yer chair, its my c
14、hair. Compliment/rejectionA: Im glad I have you for a friend.B: Thats because you dont have any others.,14,教书育人,PREFERENCE ORGANIZATION OF ADJACENCY PAIRS,An inferential aspect of adjacency pairs stems from the fact that certain first pair parts make alternative actions relevant in second position.
15、In some adjacency pairs there is a choice of two likely responses, of which one is termed preferred response (because it occurs more frequently), and the other dispreferred (because it is less common).,15,教书育人,Preferred response = unmarked response Dispreferred response = marked response Preferred r
16、esponse to an invitation is an acceptance Dispreferred response is a declination,16,教书育人,Adjacency Pairs,17,教书育人,PREFERENCE ORGANIZATION,1. Offer A: Like a lift? -acceptance (preferred) B: You saved my life. -refusal (dispreferred) B: Thanks, but Im waiting for my friend 2. Compliment A: Thats a nic
17、e shirt. -acceptance (preferred) B: Thanks -rejection (dispreferred) B: Well, I think it makes me look old -agreement (preferred) B: Its quite nice, isnt it? -shift B: Judy found it for me. -return B: Thanks, I like yours too. 3. Blame A: You broke the glass - denial (preferred) B: I didnt do it. -
18、admission (dispref) B: Sorry, I didnt see it.,18,教书育人,Structural characteristics of a dispreferred response; combinations of: Pauses or silences preceding dispreferred turn Preface marking tokens Uhm Well Other pertubations (lengthenings, cut-offs etc),19,教书育人,INSERTION SEQUENCES(Pre-sequences),Thes
19、e sequences are called adjacency pairs because, ideally, the two parts should be produced next to each other. The point is that some classes of utterances are conventionally paired such that, on the production of a first pair part, the second becomes relevant and remains so, even if it is not produc
20、ed in the next turn. The next turn in an adjacency pair sequence is a relevant second pair part. But that need not be the next turn in the series of turns making up some particular conversation.,20,教书育人,Example: (Levinson, 1983) A:Can I have a bottle of Mich?Q1 B:Are you over twenty-one?Ins 1 A:No.I
21、ns.2 B:No.A1,21,教书育人,Insertion Sequences,Schegloff gives three reasonsfor Insertion Sequences. The hearer does not under-stand what the speaker said. The hearer does not want to commit himself until he has more information. The hearer is delaying an answer. (no),22,教书育人,First topic slot,No prior con
22、straint on what should be talked about Usually the main topic of the call,23,教书育人,01 R: why dont we all have lunch 02 C: okay so that would be in St Judes would it? 03 R: yes 04 (0.7) 05 C: okay so: 06 R: one oclock in the bar 07 C: okay 08 R: okay? 09 C: ok thanks very much indeed George= 10 R:=all
23、 right 11 C: see you there 12 R: see you there 13 C: okay 14 R: okay bye 15 C: bye,24,教书育人,closure of second (third, fourth) topics are closure-relevant arrangements,25,教书育人,REPAIRS,Repair is a generic term used in CA to cover a wide range of phenomena, from - seeming errors in turn-taking, such as
24、overlapping talk, - to any of the forms of what is commonly called corrections that is, substantive faults in the contents of what someone has said.,26,教书育人,THE ORGANIZATION OF REPAIRS,Repair types The repair system embodies a distinction between 1) the initiation of repair (marking something as a s
25、ource of trouble), and 2) the actual repair itself. There is also a distinction between 1) repair initiated by self (the speaker who produced the trouble source), and 2) repair initiated by other. Consequently, there are four varieties of repair:,27,教书育人,SELF-INITIATED SELF-REPAIR,Repair is both ini
26、tiated and carried out by the speaker of the trouble source. EXAMPLE 1.I:Is it flu: youve got? 2. N:No I dont think- I refuse to have all these things,28,教书育人,SELF-INITIATED OTHER-REPAIR,The speaker of a trouble source may try and get the recipient to repair the trouble for example if a name is prov
27、ing troublesome to remember. EXAMPLE: In the following example the first speakers reference to his trouble remembering someones name initiates the second speakers repair. 1B:He had this uh Mistuh W-m whatever, I cant think of his first name, Watts on, the one that wrote /that piece 2A:/ Dan Watts.,2
28、9,教书育人,OTHER-INITIATED OTHER-REPAIR,The recipient of a trouble-source turn both initiates and carries out the repair. This is closest to what is conventionally understood by correction. EXAMPLE: In the following example there is an explicit correction which is then acknowledged and accepted in the s
29、ubsequent turn: 1Milly: and then they said something about Kruschev has leukemia so I thought oh its all a big put on. 2.Jean:Breshnev.,30,教书育人,THE PREFERENCE FOR SELF REPAIRS,There are several ways in which turns are designed to facilitate self-repair, or display the speakers sensitivity to the app
30、ropriateness of self-repair. Consider the following extract from a call to the British Airways flight information service and try to analyse it: 1A:the time for you, /h 2C: /yes 3A:is oh one seven five night (.) 5A:/seven five ni:ne,/ (Smiley voice) 6C:/seven five what. (.)/ yes,31,教书育人,Research in
31、a bigger way,Complexity of turn taking system system of ordinary conversation across cultures Some different turn taking conventions Burundi turn allocation conventions Institutional talk Classrooms Courts News conferences Debates,32,教书育人,Research in another way,Alternative explanations (which dont
32、work Turn taking based on: Signals Eye gaze Functional units rather than sequential units Speech acts,33,教书育人,Q. Conversation Analysis vs. Discourse Analysis?,34,教书育人,Sacks, H./Schegloff, E.A./Jefferson,G. A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking for Conversation Language, Vol.50,
33、No.4, Part 1. (Dec.1974), pp. 696-735 ten Have, P (1999) Doing Conversation Analysis. London: Sage Publications Hutchby, I and Wooffitt, R (1998) Conversation Analysis. Cambridge: Polity Press,35,教书育人,How to transcribe?,36,教书育人,37,教书育人,38,教书育人,So where ought we stop?,A usable transcript They were originally developed by Gail Jefferson in the early days of of CA, and have proved so robust and analytically useful that they have become indispensable.,39,教书育人,40,教书育人,41,教书育人,http:/www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/projects/transcription/representing,42,教书育人,