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1、UNIT 2,Communicative Principles and Activities,Language use in real life vs. traditional pedagogy more Fostering communicative competence more 3. The implementation of language skills more 4. Communicative activities more,Task 1.,(1) Language competence and communicative competence a. Chomskys theor
2、y: competence simply means knowledge of the language system: grammatical knowledge in other words b. Hymess theory: “there are “rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless”. Besides grammatical rules, language use is governed by rules of use, which ensure that the desired or int
3、ended functions are performed and the language used is appropriate to the context. c. Communicative competence: according to Hymes, communicative competence included four aspects: . grammatically acceptable . understandable . social norms . actually use d. Features of CLT more,i. authentic and creat
4、ive ii. meaning rather than form iii. relevant to the needsiv. task-based teachingv. functional approach e. Principles of CLTi. Communicative principleii. Task principleiii. Meaningfulness principle,(1) In listening and speaking, students should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meani
5、ngful, authentic, unpredictable, and reactive if ever possible. In reading. Since communicative courses focus on meaning rather than on form, the reading skill is redefined to focus on the purpose of reading. (3) In writing, students should make the writing more meaningful and authentic, that is to
6、practice writing to express their own feelings or describe their own experience.,(1) MMC system. Mechanic drills, meaningful drills and communicative drills. / Functional communicative activities, and Asocial interaction activities,(P. 18) Six criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activiti
7、es: i. communicative purpose ii. communicative desire iii. content, not form iv. variety of language v. no teacher intervention vi. no materials control,Task-Based Language Teaching任务型语言教学,Task-Based Language Teaching 任务型语言教学,1. Second Language Acquisition and TBLT 2. What is TBLT 3. What Are Tasks?
8、 4. Why do we use TBLT? 5. Task Analysis 6. Planning Classroom Work 7. Principles of task design 8. Performance Assessment they may be based on written text, recordings of spoken data, or visual data; they could be activities like games, demonstrations or interviews; they could be a combination of s
9、everal of these.,什么不是任务,Tasks do not include activities which involve language used for practice or display, such as Describe the picture using the words and phrases from the list below or Ask your partner if he likes the food listed here using the forms Do you like? Yes, I do/ No, I dont. where the
10、re is no outcome or purpose other than practice of pre-specified language.,Role-play activities,Very often in role-play situations there is no actual outcome for students to achieve, other than to enact their roles. Students have to think of suitable things to say to each other, but they are unlikel
11、y to be exchanging real meaning. Jane Willis,课堂任务的示例： listening to a weather forecast and deciding what to wear 任务的结果： The learner will listen to a weather forecast and identify the predicted maximum temperature for the day. 练习的结果: The learner will listen to an aural text and answer questions afterw
12、ards on whether given statements are true or false.,The essential difference between task and exercise,Task Task has a nonlinguistic outcome Exercise An exercise has a linguistic outcome 任务活动与语言练习有着本质的区别。任务活动所谋求的效果不是一种机械的语言训练，而是侧重在执行任务中学生自我完成任务的能力和策略的培养，重视学习者在完成任务过程中的参与和在交流活动中所获得的经验。 (See example be
13、low),Success in the task is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some resemblance to real-life language use. A task-based approach sees the language process as one of learning through doing- it is primarily engaging in meaning that the learners system is encourag
14、ed to develop. ( Long and Crooks 1993),Why do we use TBLT?,The tasks will engage students, challenge them, and allow for contingent interaction. According to Csikszetmihalyi (1993:xiv) They have concrete goals and manageable rules. They make it possible to adjust opportunities for action to our capa
15、cities. They provide clear information about how well we are doing. They screen out distractions and make concentration possible,Meaning and form,The meaning versus form (or fluency versus accuracy) debate is no longer a discriminating factor among teaching approaches because meaning and form are as
16、sumed to be essential for learning (e.g., Long, 1991; Long 2) to develop some form of assessment to determine if learners have learned the tasks in question. In order to develop training and tests that are congruent with the objective (i.e. require the same level of cognitive, affective, or psychomo
17、tor performance), the designer needs to know what type of task is being learned. (Jonassen, 1999. p25),Gagnes Taxonomy. Three types of tasks or objectives: knowledge, skills, or ability. (A taxonomy is a hierarchical classification scheme that organizes objects or phenomena into categories. ),Planni
18、ng the final tasks,Final tasks are communication tasks at their highest point of communicativeness, at a level that is realistic and achievable by the students in a given class. They will serve as indicators of the development of communicative competence in a given class.,Final tasks in which the st
19、udents in the classroom interact,There is a tangible end product: posters, letters to penfriends, pool information on everybodys birthdays and produce a poster to be kept in the classroom. Make a plan for a school outing and carry out plans and go on an outing. Carry out a class survey on who does t
20、he housework at home?,Enabling tasks,They act as support for communication tasks. Their purpose is to provide students with the necessary linguistic tools to carry out a communication task. They can be as meaningful as possible, their main focus is on linguistic aspects (grammar, vocabulary, pronunc
21、iation, functions, discourse) rather than on meaning. They are overt language learning experiences, whose aim is to enable students to communicate as smoothly and effectively as possible.,Some types of classroom work that maybe classified as enabling task,a. Presentation of necessary new language (
22、functions, grammar,vocabulary, phonology, discourse features checking that the new language has been understood b. Controlled pre-communication practice or awareness-raising tasks usually focused on accuracy,Communication Tasks,A communication task is a piece of classroom work during which learners
23、attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form, that is on what is being expressed rather than on the linguistic forms used for expressing it. As far as possible, resembles activities which our students or other people carry out in everyday life. As far as possible, resembles activitie
24、s which our students or other people carry out in everyday life.,The communicative task should have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end. ( Nunan 1989:10),Categories of learned capabilities (or objectives):,I
25、ntellectual skills subdivided into discriminations, concepts, and rules Problem solving combining rules or concepts to creatively solve complex problems Cognitive strategies skills in managing ones learning and thinking processes Verbal information memorization of facts and bodies of information Mot
26、or skills executing sequences of bodily performances such as dancing, balancing, or handling tools Attitudes an emotional and cognitive propensity to choose a certain course of action (e.g. “choosing to stay late after work.”),Task classification is the act of identifying and labeling task according
27、 to the specific type of learning outcome: e.g. 1) tasks require memorization; 2) tasks require students to apply a rule.,Merrills Instructional components. (1983) Tasks included remember, use, and find. Content included facts, concepts, rules, and principles.(Facts can only be remembered, but conce
28、pts, rules, and principles could be used (applied) or found),Planning classroom work,Three features for the design of all tasks: clarity, flexibility, and feedback Three kinds of demands tasks place on learners: learning, content, and action demands,Task training sequence,describe the overall traini
29、ng goals describe the flowchart of the tasks to be learned teach learners to name and identify work objects and actions point out important task-relevant cues,teach the necessary task-related information teach specific procedures associating stimuli and response teach decision-making strategies and
30、problem solving allow for practice of motor response (Miller, 1962) (p41),Three Pedagogical Goals for Task-based Approaches,Accuracy 准确程度 Accuracy concerns how well language is produced in relation to the target language,Complexity 综合程度 Complexity concerns the elaboration or ambition of the language
31、 which is produced. How far do learners rely on prefabricated phrases and established routines, and how far do they need to expand their language resources to meet the communicative challenge?,Fluency 流利程度 Fluency concerns the learners capacity to produce language in real time without undue pausing
32、or hesitation. It is likely to rely upon more lexicalized modes of communication, as the pressure of real time speech production are met only by avoiding excessive rule-based computation (skehan 1994),Principles: The authenticity principle言语、情境真实性原则,The linguistic data that learners work with are au
33、thentic. The relationship between linguistic form and communicative function are clear to the learner. 任务的设计要提供给学习者明确、真实的语言信息。学习者应该清楚语言形式和语言功能之间的关系。使学习者在一种自然、真实或模拟真实的情境中体会语言、掌握语言的应用。,The form-function principle形式-功能性原则,Teaching language in ways that make form and function relationships transparent 任
34、务的设计注重形式和语言功能的结合。旨在使学习者掌握语言形式的同时，培养其自我把握语言功能的能力；每一阶段任务的设计都具有一定的导入性，学生在学习语言形式的基础上，通过系列任务的训练，能够自己进行推理和演绎，从而理解语言的功能，并在交际中进行真实运用。,The task dependency principle任务的阶梯性原则,A series of tasks in a lesson or unit of work forms a kind of pedagogical ladder, each task representing a rung on the ladder, enabling
35、the learner to reach higher and higher levels of communicative performance. 学习单元中任务的设计由简到繁，由易到难，层层深入，并形成由初级任务向高级任务以及高级任务涵盖初级任务的循环。在语言技能方面，遵循先听、读，后说、写的设计顺序，使教学阶梯式地层层递进。,Learning by doing做中学原则,Learning by doing motivates students to fulfill their potential. Learners master the language by using it com
36、municatively in the classroom, although they still have to learn grammar and memorize vocabulary. 自始至终引导学生通过完成具体的任务活动来学习语言，让学生为了特定的学习目的去实施特定的语言行动，通过完成特定的交际任务来获得和积累相应的学习经验。,Good learning tasks should: 1 enable learners to manipulate and practice specific features of language 2 allow learners to rehea
37、rse, in class, communicative skills they will need in the real world 3 activate psychological/psycholinguistic processes of learning 4 be suitable for mixed ability groups 5 involve learners in solving a problem, coming to a conclusion,6 be based on authentic or naturalistic source material 7 involv
38、e learners in sharing information 8 require the use of more than one macroskill 9 allow learners to think and talk about language and learning 10 promote skills in learning how to learn 11 have clear objectives stating what learners will be able to do as a result of taking part in the task 12 utiliz
39、e the community as a resource,13 give learners a choice in what way they do and the order in which they do it. 14 involve learners in risk-taking 15 require learners to rehearse, rewrite and polish initial efforts 16 enable learners to share in the planning and development of the task 17 have built
40、into them a means of evaluating the success or otherwise of the task #,Task function: 任务型语言教学的功能： to provide a purpose for a classroom activity 为课堂活动提供具体、清晰的目标 to make language teaching more communicative 使语言教学更具有交际性,Task types 任务的类型,Closed task one single correct answer or a restricted number of co
41、rrect answers Open task no single correct answer Core task Extended task,Performance Assessment and Task- Based Language Teaching,A learning-outcomes taxonomy is used to classify different types of learned capabilities, each of which can be labeled as a learning outcome. The distinguishing character
42、istic of each outcome is the type of performance exhibited by someone who has developed the skills which enable that outcome someone who has acquired a rule can apply the rule to solve problems. The external performances indicate the internal capability acquired by the learner.,Task-Based Assessment
43、,Performance assessment is defined as systematic attempt to measure a learners ability to use previously acquired knowledge in solving problems or completing specific tasks. ( Stiggins 1982) It seems that task accomplishment is the ultimate focus for evaluating human performance. It follows that tha
44、t L2 performance assessment and task-based approaches to language teaching and assessment will likely share a greatly deal of theoretical and practical common ground. ( Norris 1998 ),A Five-step Plan for Selecting Assessment Tasks,1 Establish what the teachers specific instructional goals are becaus
45、e it is important that the chosen assessment task actually matches the instructional outcome(s) it is designed to measure. 2 Identify the specific, discipline-based content are skills that students are expected to attain and determine whether the task adequately represents or utilizes them.,3 Insure
46、 that the task is fair and free of bias, allowing student to demonstrate their true progress and abilities without being disadvantaged by some extraneous element in the task, lack of prior knowledge, unequal access to resources or materials, and so forth. 4 Decide which of the three possible forms the tasks will take ( the choice should depend mainly on the type of skills and content that needs to be covered:,a. Authentic, real-world tasks ( which have the advantage of generating greater motivation and offering greater transferability than traditional tasks) b.,Thank you!,