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1、一、定义1 .语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2 .普通语言学 General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3 .语言 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
2、4 .识别特征 Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的 限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递(1) arbitrarinessThere is no logical connect
3、ion between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. DualityLanguage is a system, which consists o
4、f two sets of structures ,or two levels. DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.(5) Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this
5、showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5 .语言能力 CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language.6 .语言运用 performancePerformance is the actual realization o
6、f this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。7 .历时语言学 Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8 .共时语言学 Synchronical linguisti
7、csThe study of a given language at a given time.9 .语言 langueThe abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10 .言语 paroleThe realization of langue in actual use.11规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for“ correct “ behavior, to tell people what theyshould say and what
8、 should not say.12.描述性 DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, it s a social activity carried oin a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种 社会活动。2 .几种观点和现象的提出者：瑞士语言学家 F.de S
9、aussure F.de Saussure:LangSe parole 的区另UU.S.A linguist N.Chomsky 美国语言学家 N.Chomskyin1950 针对 Saussure s langue&parOfeE Competence口 performance 曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbo
10、ls.Halllanguage is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. U.S.A L
11、inguist Charles Hockett 美国语言学家 Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征 design features3 .the word languagepreceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the li
12、nguists has to do first if to study language facts.5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so its hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题 6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1 .wha
13、t are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics-it s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s langiPhonology-the study of sounds systems the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the
14、 patterns into which they fall.Morphology- It as branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntaxits a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structureof a language.Semantics-It s simply defined as the study of meaning in abs
15、traction.Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teachin
16、g and learning.2 .why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustrat
17、ion of the arbitrary nature of language, it agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language isany other name would smell as sweet .3 . what makes modern linguistics different from tradi
18、tional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language dat觇代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确 实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written传统语法是规定性的，研究 高级书面语。4 .Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? w
19、hyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种 状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.which enjoys p
20、riority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?Speech enjoys for the following reasons:(1) Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than inwriting. speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussure ,di
21、stinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky s ?Both Saussureand Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyTwo linguists idea differ in that Saussuretook a sociologic
22、al view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6.the distinction between langue and parole?(1) langue is abstract, relatively stable parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situati
23、on.1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学）The study of sounds, w
24、hich are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.（音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combin
25、ed to form sentences is called syntax （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics.（语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.（语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the workin
26、g of mind is called psycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）The study of applications （as the recovery of speech ability） is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,
27、 especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branchesinclude anthropological linguistics, （人类语言 学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive a
28、nd descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional gr
29、ammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “ correct “ or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic stud
30、y; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but n
31、ot the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and
32、parole语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussuremade the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction i
33、n order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 言能力和语言运用Proposed by
34、 American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 s.He defines competence as the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of hislanguage, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
35、Chapter Two Phonology 一、定义1 .宽式音标 Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2 .窄式音标 Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3 .清音 VoicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through with
36、out causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.4 .浊音 VoicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5 .元音 VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes thr
37、ough the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6 .辅音 ConsonantsThe sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7 .音位 PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, it as collection of distinctive phonetic feature
38、s.8 .音位变体AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.9 .音素 phoneA phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10 .最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two d
39、ifferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11 .超切分特征 SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main sup
40、rasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.12 .互补分布 complementary distribution P35Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.13 .语言的语音媒介 Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of inte
41、rest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的 声音是语音媒介。14爆破音stopsWhen a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they
42、areb p t d k g二、知识点1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.2 . of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3 .Phonetic 组成(1)Articulatory phonetics 发音 语音学 longe
43、st established, mostly developedAuditoryphonetics 听觉语音学Acousticphonetics 声学语音学4 .articulatoryApparatus /Organs of SpeechPharyngeal cavity一咽腔Oral . - 口腔 greatest source of modification of air stream found hereNasal鼻腔5 .The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation th
44、an any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.6 .Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate a
45、nd the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd.7.nasal consonants: m / n / 刀9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.10.Sequential rules例子If three consonants should cluster together at the beginni
46、ng of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:(l)the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w11 .English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone三、问答题12 wh
47、at are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory- -studies the physical properties of speechsounds, reaches the important conclusion that phoneti
48、c identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic- -studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何 有所不同听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的 传播方式。13 how are the English consonants classified?By place of articulation and By manner of articulation14 how do phonetics and phonology diffe