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1、简明英语语言学笔记Chapter 1IntroductionWhat is linguistics?Definition: the scientific study of language.A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a mu
2、ddled mass of things. The scope of linguistics:General linguistics: study language as a wholeSpecific aspects:1) Phonetics: the study of sounds2) Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3) Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4) Syntax: study the rules
3、 of how to form grammatically correct sentence5) Semantics: the study of meaning6) Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use Interdisciplinary branches:1) Sociolinguistics2) Psycholinguistics3) Applied linguistics Important distinctionsPrescriptive and descriptive:1) Descriptiv
4、e: Describe and analyze the language that people actually use2) Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language3) Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which is scientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be it correct or not.S
5、ynchronic and diachronic1) Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2) Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.3) In modern linguistics, synchro
6、nic approach enjoys priority.Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and reveals more true feature of language.Langue and parole1) Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language us
7、ers have abide by2) Parole: Concrete use of language.3) Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2) linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of languageCompetence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1) Com
8、petence: knowledge of rules of language2) Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3) The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychologicalfactors.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescrip
9、tive.2) Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3) Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-based framework.What is language?Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1) Language is a system, which means elements of
10、 language are com-bined according to rules.2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.4) Language is human-specific.1) Arbitrariness:
11、logical connection between meaning and sounds.While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g. photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage of vocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of so
12、phistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unlim-ited source of expressions.2) Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3) Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher
13、level: sounds of language can be rearranged into morphemes and words4) Displacement: 不受时空限制的5) Cultural transmission:human have to be learned and taught be acquire language.Functions of languageDescriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function:supplies informationSocial function: m
14、aintain social relations between people Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser-emotive: addresser express his attitude towards the topic or situationAddressee-conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee s actionContext-referential: addresser conveys a message or informationMessage-poeti
15、c: use language to display the beauty of languageContact-phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode-metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itselfIn early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.3 in adults:Ideational function:
16、 organize one s experience, attitude, evaluation, feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they
17、are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of languageLimited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.PhoneticsWhat is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all
18、 the sounds that occurs in the world s languages.Articulatory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcous
19、tic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the sounds waves.Chapter 4SyntaxWhat is it?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categoriesIn traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditional categ
20、ories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).Two divisionMajor lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.Minor lexical categories: determiner, degree words, qualifier, aux-iliary, conjunction.CriteriaMeaning: 1) nouns often
21、 designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation, and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives, those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies:1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) wor
22、ds with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd knowInflection:1) noun-s or es indicating plural2)adjectives-er or est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb-ing and ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not tak
23、e inflectionsDistribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur withcertain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structureXP ruleXPSpecifie
24、r head complementNP(Det)N(PP)VP(Qual)V(NP)AP(Deg)A(PP)PP(Deg)P(NP)Coordination ruleNo limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.Coordinated categories must be of the same type.The category type of coordinate phrase
25、is identical to the category type of elements being conjoined.Structure: XX, X, XCon XPhrase elements:SpecifiersRole1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,mark the phrase boundary.Different term of specifiers before different heads.SpecifiersHeadsExamplesDeterminers
26、NThe book, no water, this bookQualifiersVAlways, never failALess interesting, quite good, very sensitiveDegree wordsPAlmost in, quite aboveComplementsProvide information and location, attached to right of the headMonotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put
27、 it on the wallComplement clauseMissHerbertbelievesthatshewillwin.Matrix clausecomplementizercomplement clauseCP complementItemsHeadsExamplesAdj.Afraid, certain, awareIam afraidthatnobodywould believe me.NounsFact, claim, beliefShe can believetthefactthat she would fail intheexam.PrepositionsOver, a
28、boutThey argued overwhethershe had come to class.ModifiersTo modifier nounsTo modifier verbsadj. phrasesadv. Phrases and prepositional phrasesPosition of modifiersModifiersPositionsExamplesAPPrecedes the headA very careful girlPPFollow the headOpen with careAdvPPrecedes or followRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NPInlfVP