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1、语言学教程复习资料-胡壮麟第一章1. What is Ian guage?Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n comm uni cati on2. Desig n features of Ian guage Arbitrariness（ 任意性）refers to the forms of lin guistic sig ns _bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning. （sounds and meanings） Duality （二层性）:T
2、he property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the sec on dary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Productivity/creativity（仓U造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction an
3、d interpretation of new signals by its users. Displacement（移位性）:Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and con cepts which are not prese nt （in time and space） at mome nt of comm uni cati on. （p7）3. Fun cti ons of Ian guage Informative（信息功能）:to give information about facts.
4、（ideati on al） Interpersonal（人际功能 ）:to establish and maintain social status in a society.（age, sex,Ian guage, backgro und, acce nt, status） Performative（施为功能）:Ianguage is used to do things, to perform certain actions. （name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare） .Emotive/Expressive （情感功能 ）:to express
5、feeli ngs and attitudes of the speaker. Phatic comm union（寒暄交流）:to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relati on ship or maintain socia con tact betwee n people without any factual content. （Health, weather） Recreational function（娱乐）:the use of Ian guage for sheer joy. （
6、lyrics, poetry） Metalingual function（元语言功能）:to talk about Ian guage itself.4. What is lin guistics?Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of language5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachr onicLan gue & paroleCompete nee & performa
7、nee6. Descriptive（描写 / 述性）一describe and an alyze linguistic facts or the Ianguage people actually use （moder n lin guistic）Prescriptive（规定性）lay down rules for “ correct and standard ” linguistic behavior in using Ianguage （traditionalgrammar:“ neveruse a double negative ”）7.Synchronic study （共时）desc
8、ription of a Ianguage at some point of time （modern lin guistics）Diachronic study （历时） description of a Ianguage as it changes through time （historical developme nt of Ian guage over a period of time） 第四章1. What is Syntax （句法）？Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituent
9、s are comb ined to form sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组 成句子的规则2. Four Approaches :The traditional approach 传统语言观 （Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category 范畴、Con cord and gover nment 一致关系和支配关系 ）、The structural approach 结构语 言观、 The generative approach、 The functional approach 功能语言观3. The traditional g
10、rammar regards sentences as a sequenee of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words , such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech , the ide ntificati on of fun cti on of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditi onal grammar defi nes 8 pa
11、rts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositi ons, conjun cti ons and in terjecti ons.5. The term Category 范畴 in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和 功能 eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the d
12、efi ning properties of these gen eral un its:the categories of the noun 名词的范畴,in elude number, gender, case and countability (case); the categories of the verb 动词的范畴:tense, aspect, voice, etc.6. Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and pl
13、ural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gen der is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gen der of the creature.8. Case is used in the an alysis of word classes t
14、oiden tify the syn tactic relati on shipbetwee nwords in a sen te nee.在词类分析中，格范畴用来 辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative 主格,accusative 受格,and genitive 与格.Nouns have two of general and genitive 所 有格In En glish, the case of noun is realized in three cha nn els:(a)in flecti o
15、n(b)followi ng aprepositi on(c) word order9. Tense 时态:the absolute locati on of an eve nt or action on time. It is marked by an inflectionof the verb. As a result, there are only two ten ses recog ni zed now: past and prese nt.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do
16、not refer to a“ future tense ”ven though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect 体:It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed.Perfective (完成体)and Imperfective (进行体) Perfective and Progressive (in En glish)11. Voice 语态:describe the relat
17、i on ship betwee n verb and subjectPassive被动语态 and active 主动语态12. Con cord and gover nment Con cord （ 一 致 关 系 ）refers to agreement between words, especially between a_verb_a nd the subject _of a senten ce. Government （支 配关系）is a type of grammatical relati on ship betwee n two or more eleme nts in a
18、senten ce.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relati on ship betwee n verbs and nouns or betwee n prepositi ons and nouns.13. The Structural Approach，由 Ferdinand de Saussure 提出14.Syntactic Relations : Positional relations 位置 关系、Relations of substitutab
19、ility 替代关系、 Relations of co-occurrenee 同现关系15.1 mmediate constituent （ 直 接成分 ）is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an an alysis.16. An endocentric construction （ 向心结构 ）is a con structi on that contains:1） a head, which is the single obligatoryeleme nt in the con structi on;2) one or mo
20、re opti onal eleme nts subord in ate to the head.17. theme (主位)refers to the known in formati on which is not new to the reader or liste nerRheme (述位)refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to betran smitted to the reader or liste nerThe linguists of the Prague school b
21、elieved that sentence may be an alyzed the functional sideas wellfromasasthe grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side) theme, rheme (fun cti onal side) 第五章1. What is Sema ntics?Sema ntics is the study of themeaning of words, phrases and sentences.语 义学 是研究 单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2. Geoffrey Leech
22、 禾利奇 Seven types of meaning7 种意义类型：L概念意义 Con ceptual mea nin Connotative meaning 内涵意义 Social meaning 社会意义 Affective meaning 感 情 意义Associative Meaning 联想意义（一） Reflected meaning 反射意义 Collocative meaning 搭配意义 Thematic meaning 主位意义3. Conceptual meaning （概念意义）is also called “ denotative （外卜延义） and it is
23、concerned withthe relati on ship betwee n a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它 所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dicti on ary.4. Associative meaning （联想意义）is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning w
24、hich a word suggests or implies.5. Thematic meaning （主位意义）is “ what is comm uni cated by the way in which the messageis orga ni zed in terms of order and emphasis. 它 是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Refere ntial Theory （指称理论）： The Refere ntial Theory The Sema ntic Tria ngle Sense and Refere nee7. The referential
25、 theory 指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟 它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle 语 意三角 is the, indirect relati on betwee n a word and a thi ngit refers to and it is mediated by concept. 语意三 角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以 概念为中介的9.Se nse 涵义）i
26、s a set of properties possessed by a n ame.10. Refere nee （扌旨称）is the symbolic relati on ship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The senseof an expression is the thought it expresses, while its referenee is the object it represe ntsEvery word has a sen se, but not every wo
27、rd has a refere nee.12. Sense Relatio ns 涵义关系 Synonymy （同义关系） Antonymy （反义关系） （Gradable、 Compleme ntary、Con verse） Hyponymy （上下义关系）13. But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotationsnd dialect.14. Gradable antonymy （等级反义关系）、 Complementary antonymy （互补反义关系）、 Con verse anton ymy （反向
28、反义关系 ）15. Comp onen tial an alysis is an approach to the study of meaning which an alyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relati ons betwee n senten ces Synonymity （同义）a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He n ever married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a
29、synonymousrelati on ship:the truth of one sentence n ecessarily implies the truth of ano ther sentence Inconsistency （矛盾）a. Elizabeth II is Quee n of En gla nd.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Senten ces a and b are in a relati on ship ofcon tradictio n:the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the fals
30、eness of another senten ce. Entailment （蕴涵）a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a bion de.En tailme nt refers to a ki nd of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is in cluded in y. Presupposition （前提预设）It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message alre
31、ady kno ws. Contradiction （矛盾） Semantic anomaly （语义反常）18. An integrated theory* Compositionality（ 组合性原贝V ）: the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the con stitue nt words and the way they are comb in ed.* This semantic theory is the integration of syn tax and sema ntics* Their basic ide
32、a is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary ad a set of projectio n rules* The dictionary provides the grammatical classificati on and sema ntic in formatio n of words* The projectionrules are responsible forcomb ining the meanings of words together.19. Logical semantics （逻辑语义学）*
33、 A proposition（ 命题）is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a stateme nt.* It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.* A very importa nt property of the propositi onis that it has a truth value.第七章1. Language and Culture : Sapir-WhorfHypothesi
34、s Evidenee Given by Whorf Implication of SWH Relation between Lan guage and Culture2. SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism （语 言决定 论）:the Ian guage we use determ ines the way we view about the world around us.Lan guage may determ ine our thi nking patter ns.（语言决定思维）
35、P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLan guage in flue nces thought and culture , Lan guage varies in categories and con cepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different Ian guage users, that is, culture and thought are con diti oned by Ian guageCulture in flue nces Ian guage , E
36、very Ian guage is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experie nee radical cha nges, the vocabulary also un dergoes corresp onding alterati ons4. La nguage and SocietyRelati on betwee n Lan guage and SocietyVarieties of Ianguage (Dialects、Regi
37、sters)Bili ngualism and DiglossiaPidgi n and Creole5. Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.6. Dialectal Varieties : Regional dialect、 Sociadialect ( Sociolect 、Lan guage andgender、Language and age、 Idiolect、Ethnic dialect)7.Social dia
38、lect refers to a variety of Ianguage associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gen der and occupati on.8. An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a Ian guage that cuts across regi onal differe nces; it is mainly spoken by a
39、 less privileged population that has experieneed some form of socia isolationsuch as racial discrimination orsegregati on.9diolect refers to the speech variety of an in dividual. Every speaker has his own way of express ing his or her idea.10. Register refers to the functional variety of Ian guage t
40、hat is defi ned accordi ng to its use in a con text of situati on.11. Halliday s Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function varies; it differs in differe nt situati ons.Halliday disti nguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse （语 场）、 tenor of discourse （语旨）、 mode of disc
41、ourse （语式）12. Bilingualism （双语制）:the use of two Ianguages, esp with equal or nearly equal flue ncy.13. Diglossia （双语体现象）:when two varieties of a Ian guage exist side by side; and each is used for differe nt purposes, this is called diglossia.14. A pidgi n : it is a special la nguage variety thatmixe
42、s andble ndsIan guagesused forcomm uni cative purposes by groups of people who do not know each other guagen15. A creole : when a pidgin has become the primary Ian guage of a speech comm un ity, and is acquired by the children of that speech comm un ity as their n ative Ian guage, it is said to have
43、 become a creole.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study ofIan guagein con text / use / comm uni cati on .2 Sema ntics and PragmaticsSimilarity : Pragmatics and semantics are both lin guistic study of meaningDifferenee : Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ; Pragmati
44、c meaning: the more in determ in ate, the more closely related to con text ; Pragmatic = mea ning -sema ntics3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Con versati onalImplicature 、Post-Gricea n Developme nts4.Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论）： Performatives and Constatives A theory of the illocuti o
45、nary act5. Theuttera nee which performs an act iscalled a performative （ 行事话语）。6. A constative （述 事话语）is an utteranee which assertssomething that is either true or false.7Characteristics of Implicature : Calculability、 Can cellability 、Non-detachability、Non-conven tio nality8. Calculability（可推导性）: m
46、eans that implicature of an utteranee can be calculated based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, con text, etc.9. Cancellability/Defeasibility（可取消性 /可废除原贝V ） If the factors that conversational implicature relied on change, the implicature will also cha nge.10. Releva nee Theory 关联理论Comm un icative Prin ciple of Releva nee: Every ostensive stimulus eonveys a presumption of its own optimal releva nee.Cogn itive Prin ciple of Releva nee : Huma n cog niti on tends to be geared to the maximizati onof releva nee.