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1、自由与民主：论瓦尔登湖中的个人主义精神作者：李卫林 学号：09080112 指导教师：唐旭摘 要：亨利大卫梭罗(1817 - 1862)是美国历史上最著名的散文家和诗人之一。瓦尔登湖是他最著名的一部作品,其中描述了他在树林里的隐居生活。这部作品是对工业文明的一种反思。本论文主要有三个部分:瓦尔登湖的超验主义思想;瓦尔登湖中的个人主义和它与超验主义的关系;个人主义在当代社会的重要意义。论文从个人主义的研究着手，为研究和理解梭罗及其作品提供新视角，更重要的是,文中对个人主义思想的挖掘也将让人们反思人生的真正意义。关键词：亨利大卫梭罗；超验主义；个人主义；自由；民主Application of th
2、e Functional Equivalence in the English Version of Gu Wen Guan ZhiAuthor：Yan Qing Number：09080223 Tutor：Li JuanAbstract: Gu Wen Guan Zhi was a teaching material that was compiled for private school learners during the Kangxi Year of Qing dynasty, including 222 ancient Chinese prose from the pre-Qin
3、era to last years of Ming dynasty. Professor Luo Jingguo from Beijing University carefully selected and translated 32 representative prose from the anthology in 2005, which is an groundbreaking work in ancient prose translation. This thesis adopts induction and example-analyzing method to analyze th
4、e English version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi from the perspective of Nidas functional equivalence on levels of meaning, style and culture. According to the research, it can be found that Luo Jingguos translation has achieved functional equivalence in most cases and this theory has profound significance in c
5、onducting practical translation.Key words: Gu Wen Guan Zhi; English version; functional equivalence; applicationI IntroductionChinese classical prose is an important component of Chinese national culture and Gu Wen Guan Zhi takes an indispensable position in it. It is a famous anthology assembled by
6、 Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou in the thirty-fourth year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1654-1722) during the Qing dynasty. The two compilers performed a very meaningful undertaking by gathering the 222 pieces from diverse reams of extraordinary material penned over a span of 2800 years, beginning with
7、those from the early Zhou Dynasty (1046 B.C.-256 B.C.). Professor Luo Jingguo from Beijing University selected thirty-two essays from the 222 pieces featured in Gu Wen Guan Zhi and published as a new book named A selection of Classical Chinese Essays From Gu Wen Guan Zhi. The essays chosen to be tra
8、nslated and included in this book have for centuries highly acclaimed and widely read by the Chinese intelligentsia. Aphorisms from these texts have weathered wars and political upheavals to linger on the lips of the modern-day Chinese people. Their wisdom has long been accepted as guiding principle
9、s of Chinese ethics. It is hoped that this translated anthology will expose the reader to the beauty of traditional Chinese literature, and honor ancient generations of literary pioneers that nurtured a people and a nation. What is translation? Translation theorists define the nature of translation
10、from different approaches. Eugene A. Nidas translation theory does affect the development of Chinese translation profoundly, particularly the theory of functional equivalence, which is regarded as one of the most useful criteria. The functional equivalence theory mainly includes three aspects: meani
11、ng, style and readers response. Compared with other criteria, the functional equivalence theory emphasizes the closest natural equivalent of the source language message.In recent years, numerous scholars in China bury themselves in the study of translation of essays collected in Gu Wen Guan Zhi. Mor
12、e often they only pick one or two essays for analyzing, but few of them have tried to study the whole selection systematically. In addition, applying the functional equivalence in the English version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi is a goundbreaking undertaking that few have done before. Therefore, it is necess
13、ary and innovative to make researches on the application of functional equivalence in the English version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi. This thesis is composed of four chapters. The first chapter makes a brief introduction to the background, necessity and innovation of this thesis. The second chapter briefly
14、introduces Nidas functional equivalence as the theoretical basis. The third chapter is devoted to a detailed study of the application of Nidas functional equivalence in the English version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi translated by Luo Jingguo, consisting of three aspects: meaning, style and culture. Chapter
15、four is conclusion including important findings and applicability of Nidas theory of functional equivalence. II Nidas Functional Equivalence TheoryEugene A. Nida is a famous scholar who has a great influence on translation studies in western countries. In addition, his translation studies have also
16、made great effect on Chinas translation study field. Functional equivalence is one of Nidas most important theories. A tough road of consummation has been taken before the theory of functional equivalence was established. Nida developed his theory of translation from his own translation practice of
17、the Bible since 1940s and in 1964, Nida raised, in his Toward a Science of Translating, the concept of “dynamic equivalence” which later in his From One Language to Another, turned into a more popular term-functional equivalence in 1993.Functional equivalence can be described as “the closest natural
18、 equivalent to the source-language message” (Nida, 2004:166). In his work Toward a Science of Translating, he illustrates the three essential terms in detail in the first part. The first is “equivalent, which points toward the source-language message.”(ibid); the second is “natural, which points tow
19、ard the receptor language.”(ibid); and the third is “closest, which binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest degree of approximation.”(ibid). In this sense, the equivalence of response is prior to the form. The second part of Nidas functional equivalence theory places emphasis
20、 on the importance of readers response. As a matter of fact, readers response is a theory in western literary criticisms, which insists that a text does not exist until it is read by readers. The third part of Nidas functional equivalence theory is that he pays much attention on culture. According t
21、o Nida, each language has its own genius. There is a close relationship between language and culture. In this sense, the consideration of the culture is essential in the process of translating. 2.1 Varying Degrees of Functional EquivalenceCultures are different from each other since a certain langua
22、ge is based on a certain culture. In this sense there is no complete equivalence in the process of translation. Functional equivalence emphasizes the range of adequacy, and different translations represent different degrees of equivalence. In Nidas work Language and Culture, he describes different d
23、egrees of adequacy from minimal to maximal effectiveness. The minimal definition of functional equivalence is described as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciate
24、d it” (Nida, 2001:87). The maximal definition of functional equivalence is described as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.”(ibid).From the statement above, it can be clearly seen that the minima
25、l level of functional equivalence is the basic requirement for a translator and the bottom line of the translation task. Otherwise, the work is not understandable and acceptable for readers. However, the maximal degree of functional equivalence is the highest stage of translation which seems to be h
26、ardly achieved. 2.2 Principles for Producing Functional Equivalence Functional equivalence tries to achieve the natural equivalent of the source text. In order to produce a satisfactory functional equivalent of a source text, Nida proposes that some helpful principles governing the kinds and degrees
27、 of adjustment may be necessary. In his book Language and Culture, he puts forward some principles:A. When a formal translation is possible to arouse misunderstanding of the designative meaning, or the associative meaning or reduce the stylistic values of the original text, some adjustments must be
28、made or a footnote must be added in order to diminish the likely misunderstanding.B. When a formal translation does not make sense, some adjustments must be made. C. When a formal translation is difficult in semantic and syntactic so that the person does not have desire to understand it, certain adj
29、ustments are highly demanded.The principles make great influence on the extent to which changes should be made. Usually, the source text requires some adjustments on different levels, namely, phonology, lexicon, syntax, and discourse. (Nida, 2001:92-94)Under the guidance of these principles the gap
30、between the source text readers and the target text readers can be narrowed. With these adjustments, target language readers could have the effect as the original language readers. To some extent, translation is like an art. A good translation should make some adjustments from the original.III Appli
31、cation of Nidas Functional Equivalence in the English Version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi Is Nidas theory of functional equivalence applicable to translation practice between Chinese and English? This part presents some typical examples from the English version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi translated by Luo Jingguo to
32、 examine the application of functional equivalence from the following three aspects: meaning, style and culture. These three aspects typically embody Nidas functional equivalence theory and are main standards to test its practical use.3.1 Functional Equivalence Achieved on the Level of MeaningAccord
33、ing to Nida, in the process of translation, meaning is prior to style. In Nidas work The Theory and Practice of Translation, he points out “As has already been indicated in the definition of translating, meaning must be given priority, for it is the content of the message which is of prime importanc
34、e for Bible translating.” (Nida, 2003:13 )Generally, there are two types of meaning in terms of lexemes, namely, the designative meaning and the associative meaning. The designative meaning represents referents in the practical or linguistic area, while the associative meaning represents meaning ass
35、ociated with the discourse, culture or the linguistic setting characteristic of the word. 3.1.1 On the Level of Designative MeaningIn Nidas work Language and Culture, he defines designative meaning as follows: “The designative meaning of a lexeme includes the bundle of semantic features which serves
36、 to define the range of referents which the lexeme in question can represent.”(Nida, 2001:33)Designative meaning is stated in terms of entity, activity, characteristic and so on. Hence the translation of designative meaning is not so difficult for translators. Here are some examples in the English v
37、ersion of Gu Wen Guan Zhi for designative meaning translation.Example 1: 黄发垂髫，并怡然自得。English version: They all, old and young, appeared happy. (罗经国, 2005:27)In ancient Chinese culture “黄发” refers to the hair of old people turning blond from white, signifying longevity. Accordingly, “垂髫” refers to chi
38、ldren who keep their hair draping. In ancient times people were accustomed to tying their hair up except young boys under 20 and girls under 15. In this sense, the usage of “they all, old and young” to express “黄发垂髫”, to some extent, transfers the designative meaning accurately and adequately, so th
39、at achieves the goal of the closest natural equivalent. Example 2: 先帝不以臣卑鄙，猥自枉屈，三顾臣于草庐之中，谘臣以当事之事。 English Version: With an utter disregard of my low status and meager fund of knowledge, the late king condescended to visit me at my thatched cottage three times to consult me about the current events o
40、f the country. (罗经国, 2005:4)In modern Chinese “卑鄙” means “people or their behavior unworthy or unkind”, while in ancient Chinese “卑鄙” was used to describe ones low status and limited knowledge, combining the meaning of “卑” (low status) and “鄙” (shallow knowledge). From this point of view, the transl
41、ator collocates the words successfully and expresses the meaning correctly, thus achieves the functional equivalence on level of designative meaning.From these examples above, it can be seen that the translation of designative meaning of certain words is not so difficult for a qualified translator.3
42、.1.2 On the Level of Associative MeaningCompared with the translation of designative meaning of a word, the translation of associative meaning is much more difficult, for the reason that they are always subtle and elusive. Usually, the associative meaning of a certain word is far beyond the designat
43、ive meaning. In the book Language and Culture, Nida defines associative meaning in this way: “The associative meanings of a lexeme are derived primarily from the contexts (both cultural and linguistic) in which such lexemes habitually occur.” (Nida, 2001:31)Cultural concepts might be a very importan
44、t factor that influences the associative meaning of a term. Here are some examples under the guidance of functional equivalence in the English translation of Gu Wen Guan Zhi.Example 3: 帝知臣谨慎，故临崩寄臣以大事也。English Version: the late king knew of my prudence, and entrusted me on his death bed with the duty
45、 of assisting your Majesty in governing the country. (罗经国, 2005: 5) By translating “大事” into “the duty of assisting your Majesty in governing the country”, the translator has brought out the contextual meaning adequately. If he directly translated “大事” into “big event”, the reader would feel perplex
46、ed, as the phrase is too vague and is not in line with the context. Here, the translator catches the associative meaning of “大事”, conveying the meaning correctly, thus allowing the target language readers to understand and appreciate the context accurately and adequately. Example 4: 客有吹洞箫音，倚歌而和之。其声呜
47、呜然如怨，如慕，如泣，如诉，余音袅袅，不绝如缕，舞幽壑之潜蛟，泣孤舟之馨妇。Version: The notes of a bamboo flute in the hands of my friend accompanied my singing. The flute sounded melancholy, like someone complaining, or yearning, or weeping, or lamenting. The sound persisted long in the air as if it were an endless thin thread of silk
48、. It discomfited the sleeping dragon that lay hidden under the water and made the widow on a lonely boat cry. (罗经国, 2005: 187)How to translate the Chinese character “舞”? Its designative meaning is “to dance”. But if we translate the sentence into “It makes the sleeping dragon that lay hidden under t
49、he water dance”, it would not be so accurate from the context, because “to dance” always implicates “happiness”. The former sentences are the expression of grievance, so the following sentences, as the results triggered by the sad feeling, should also maintain the same tone. The translator has successfully solved the tickler by rendering “舞” as “discomfited”, because he has kept the logical coherence betwee