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1、Chapter 2,Phonetics Phonology,1. Inroduction,(1) Phonetics and phonology are very useful. With some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with some phonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. More i
2、mportantly, phonetics and phonology have made the greatest contribution to “teaching” machines to “talk”.,(2) Linguistics is only interested in speech sounds. Sounds made by a human being but not used in language are not considered as speech sound, e.g. coughing, vomitting, snoring.,2. Phonetics,Pho
3、netics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language. It studies the characteristics of human sound-making, particularly the sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their transcription, description and classification.,Three branches of phonetics: (1) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 i
4、s the study of how speech sounds are produced. (2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 studies how speech sounds are perceived by the hearer. (3) Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 studies the transmission of speech sounds through the air.,Our primary interest will be in articulatory phonetics.,Speech organs/Articulator
5、s,The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throat; The oral cavity 口腔 the mouth. The speech organs located in this cavity are the tongue, the soft palate, the hard palate, the teeth ridge, the teeth and the lips; The nasal cavit
6、y鼻腔 the nose.,3. IPA and broad vs. narrow transcription,The international phonetic alphabetIPAsystem was devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1988 and has undergone a number of revision since then. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European langua
7、ges to represent one speech sound. The application of the phonetic symbols is universal to all languages.,Broad transcription 宽式标音: the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription 严式标音: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics变音符. Diacritics are a set of sy
8、mbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.,4. Classifications of English speech sounds,Question: Analyze the important features of vowels and consonants.,(1) Classification of consonants In terms of manner of articulation, English co
9、nsonants can be classified into the following types:,Stops/plosives 塞音/破裂音 Fricatives 擦音 Affricates 塞擦音 Liquids 流音: llateral边音 rretroflex卷舌音 Nasals 鼻音 Glides/semi-vowels 滑音/半元音,In terms of place of articulation, English consonants can be classified into the following types:,Bilabial 双唇音 Labiodental
10、唇齿音 Dental 齿音 Alveolar 齿龈音 Palatal 腭音 Velar 软腭音 Glottal 喉音,(2) Classification of vowels Vowels can be classified into monophthongs单元音 and diphthongs双元音.,Monophthongs can be classified according to: A. the position of the tongue in the mouth: front vowels central vowels back vowels,B. the openness of
11、 the mouth: close vowels semi-close vowels semi-open vowels open vowels,C. the shape of the lips: unrounded vowels rounded vowels D. the length of the vowels: long vowelstense vowel紧元音 short vowelslax vowels松元音,5. Phonology,Phonology studies how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how thes
12、e sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Question: How does phonology differ from phonetics?,Phone音素, phoneme音位, and allophone音位变体,A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Question: Can a phon
13、e distinguish meaning?,and, at, add, lead, tell, ten How many phones are there in the above words? How many phonemes?,A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.,The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environm
14、ents are called the allophones of that phoneme. E.g., clear l and dark l are allophones of the phoneme /l/ in English; aspirated p and unaspirated p are allophones of the phoneme /p/ in English.,Phonemic contrast音位对立, complementary distribution互补分布, and minimal pair最小对立体,If two phonetically similar
15、sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. Question: Do /f/ and /v/ form a phonemic contrast? How about /f/ and /k/?,If they are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution.,A minimal pair is a pair o
16、f words which differ from each other only by one sound. And the two different sounds must occur in the same position.,Questions: 1. Do ran and rang form a minimal pair? How about lead and leave, why and high, bought and but, peek and keen, seed and soup?,2. What is a minimal set? Do rap, rack, ratch
17、, ram, ran, and razz form a minimal set? How about heed, hid, head, hard, hoard, heard, hood, and hide?,6. Some rules in phonology,(1) Sequential rules 序列规则 Sequential rules are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. The rules governing the phonological patterning are
18、language specific. What is not permissible in English might be permissible in another language.,(2) Assimilation rule 同化规则 The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “coping” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.,indiscreet The consonant following n is
19、 an alveolar stop. inconceivable The consonant following n is a velar stop. input The consonant following n is a bilabial stop. Another example is the various forms of the negative prefix in- in different words.,(3) Deletion rule 省略规则 The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although
20、 it is orthographically represented.,7. Suprasegmental features 超切分特征,The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. (1) Stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.,(2) Tone The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is espe
21、cially important in what we call tone languages. (3) Intonation,Read the following tongue-twisters or ditties.,She was a thistle sifter and sifted thistles through a thistle sieve The sixth sheikhs sixth sheeps sick I can think of six thin things and of six thick things too Around the rugged rocks t
22、he ragged rascal ran,Did you eever iver ever in your leaf life loaf See the deevil divil devil kiss his weef wife woaf? No, I neever niver never in my leaf life loaf Saw the deevil divil devil kiss his weef wife woaf.,She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore. The shells she sells are sea-shells I am sure, For if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore Then I am sure she sells sea-shore shells.,A flea and a fly in a flue Were imprisoned, so what could they do? Said the flea, “let us fly” Said the fly, “let us flee” So, they flew through a flaw in the flue.,