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1、Analysis of Algorithms,Algorithm,Input,Output,An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem in a finite amount of time.,Analysis of Algorithms,2,Running Time (1.1),Most algorithms transform input objects into output objects. The running time of an algorithm typically grows with the
2、input size. Average case time is often difficult to determine. We focus on the worst case running time. Easier to analyze Crucial to applications such as games, finance and robotics,Analysis of Algorithms,3,Experimental Studies ( 1.6),Write a program implementing the algorithm Run the program with i
3、nputs of varying size and composition Use a method like System.currentTimeMillis() to get an accurate measure of the actual running time Plot the results,Analysis of Algorithms,4,Limitations of Experiments,It is necessary to implement the algorithm, which may be difficult Results may not be indicati
4、ve of the running time on other inputs not included in the experiment. In order to compare two algorithms, the same hardware and software environments must be used,Analysis of Algorithms,5,Theoretical Analysis,Uses a high-level description of the algorithm instead of an implementation Characterizes
5、running time as a function of the input size, n. Takes into account all possible inputs Allows us to evaluate the speed of an algorithm independent of the hardware/software environment,Analysis of Algorithms,6,Pseudocode (1.1),High-level description of an algorithm More structured than English prose
6、 Less detailed than a program Preferred notation for describing algorithms Hides program design issues,Analysis of Algorithms,7,Pseudocode Details,Control flow if then else while do repeat until for do Indentation replaces braces Method declaration Algorithm method (arg , arg) Input Output ,Method c
7、all var.method (arg , arg) Return value return expression Expressions Assignment (like in Java) Equality testing (like in Java) n2 Superscripts and other mathematical formatting allowed,Analysis of Algorithms,8,The Random Access Machine (RAM) Model,A CPU An potentially unbounded bank of memory cells
8、, each of which can hold an arbitrary number or character,Memory cells are numbered and accessing any cell in memory takes unit time.,Analysis of Algorithms,9,Primitive Operations,Basic computations performed by an algorithm Identifiable in pseudocode Largely independent from the programming languag
9、e Exact definition not important (we will see why later) Assumed to take a constant amount of time in the RAM model,Examples: Evaluating an expression Assigning a value to a variable Indexing into an array Calling a method Returning from a method,Analysis of Algorithms,10,Counting Primitive Operatio
10、ns (1.1),By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine the maximum number of primitive operations executed by an algorithm, as a function of the input size,Algorithm arrayMax(A, n) # operations currentMax A0 2 for i 1 to n 1 do 2 + n if Ai currentMax then 2(n 1) currentMax Ai 2(n 1) increment count
11、er i 2(n 1) return currentMax 1 Total 7n 1,Analysis of Algorithms,11,Estimating Running Time,Algorithm arrayMax executes 7n 1 primitive operations in the worst case. Define: a = Time taken by the fastest primitive operation b = Time taken by the slowest primitive operation Let T(n) be worst-case tim
12、e of arrayMax. Then a (7n 1) T(n) b(7n 1) Hence, the running time T(n) is bounded by two linear functions,Analysis of Algorithms,12,Growth Rate of Running Time,Changing the hardware/ software environment Affects T(n) by a constant factor, but Does not alter the growth rate of T(n) The linear growth
13、rate of the running time T(n) is an intrinsic property of algorithm arrayMax,Analysis of Algorithms,13,Growth Rates,Growth rates of functions: Linear n Quadratic n2 Cubic n3 In a log-log chart, the slope of the line corresponds to the growth rate of the function,Analysis of Algorithms,14,Constant Fa
14、ctors,The growth rate is not affected by constant factors or lower-order terms Examples 102n + 105 is a linear function 105n2 + 108n is a quadratic function,Analysis of Algorithms,15,Big-Oh Notation (1.2),Given functions f(n) and g(n), we say that f(n) is O(g(n) if there are positive constants c and
15、 n0 such that f(n) cg(n) for n n0 Example: 2n + 10 is O(n) 2n + 10 cn (c 2) n 10 n 10/(c 2) Pick c = 3 and n0 = 10,Analysis of Algorithms,16,Big-Oh Example,Example: the function n2 is not O(n) n2 cn n c The above inequality cannot be satisfied since c must be a constant,Analysis of Algorithms,17,Mor
16、e Big-Oh Examples,7n-2,7n-2 is O(n) need c 0 and n0 1 such that 7n-2 cn for n n0 this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1,3n3 + 20n2 + 5,3n3 + 20n2 + 5 is O(n3) need c 0 and n0 1 such that 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 cn3 for n n0 this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 21,3 log n + log log n,3 log n + log log n is O(log n) nee
17、d c 0 and n0 1 such that 3 log n + log log n clog n for n n0 this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 2,Analysis of Algorithms,18,Big-Oh and Growth Rate,The big-Oh notation gives an upper bound on the growth rate of a function The statement “f(n) is O(g(n)” means that the growth rate of f(n) is no more than
18、the growth rate of g(n) We can use the big-Oh notation to rank functions according to their growth rate,Analysis of Algorithms,19,Big-Oh Rules,If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then f(n) is O(nd), i.e., Drop lower-order terms Drop constant factors Use the smallest possible class of functions Say
19、“2n is O(n)” instead of “2n is O(n2)” Use the simplest expression of the class Say “3n + 5 is O(n)” instead of “3n + 5 is O(3n)”,Analysis of Algorithms,20,Asymptotic Algorithm Analysis,The asymptotic analysis of an algorithm determines the running time in big-Oh notation To perform the asymptotic an
20、alysis We find the worst-case number of primitive operations executed as a function of the input size We express this function with big-Oh notation Example: We determine that algorithm arrayMax executes at most 7n 1 primitive operations We say that algorithm arrayMax “runs in O(n) time” Since consta
21、nt factors and lower-order terms are eventually dropped anyhow, we can disregard them when counting primitive operations,Analysis of Algorithms,21,Computing Prefix Averages,We further illustrate asymptotic analysis with two algorithms for prefix averages The i-th prefix average of an array X is aver
22、age of the first (i + 1) elements of X: Ai = (X0 + X1 + + Xi)/(i+1) Computing the array A of prefix averages of another array X has applications to financial analysis,Analysis of Algorithms,22,Prefix Averages (Quadratic),The following algorithm computes prefix averages in quadratic time by applying
23、the definition,Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n) Input array X of n integers Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations A new array of n integers n for i 0 to n 1 do n s X0 n for j 1 to i do 1 + 2 + + (n 1) s s + Xj 1 + 2 + + (n 1) Ai s / (i + 1) n return A 1,Analysis of Algorithms,23,Arithmet
24、ic Progression,The running time of prefixAverages1 is O(1 + 2 + + n) The sum of the first n integers is n(n + 1) / 2 There is a simple visual proof of this fact Thus, algorithm prefixAverages1 runs in O(n2) time,Analysis of Algorithms,24,Prefix Averages (Linear),The following algorithm computes pref
25、ix averages in linear time by keeping a running sum,Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n) Input array X of n integers Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations A new array of n integers n s 0 1 for i 0 to n 1 do n s s + Xi n Ai s / (i + 1) n return A 1,Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time,
26、Analysis of Algorithms,25,properties of logarithms: logb(xy) = logbx + logby logb (x/y) = logbx - logby logbxa = alogbx logba = logxa/logxb properties of exponentials: a(b+c) = aba c abc = (ab)c ab /ac = a(b-c) b = a logab bc = a c*logab,Summations (Sec. 1.3.1) Logarithms and Exponents (Sec. 1.3.2)
27、Proof techniques (Sec. 1.3.3) Basic probability (Sec. 1.3.4),Math you need to Review,Analysis of Algorithms,26,Relatives of Big-Oh,big-Omega f(n) is (g(n) if there is a constant c 0 and an integer constant n0 1 such that f(n) cg(n) for n n0 big-Theta f(n) is (g(n) if there are constants c 0 and c 0
28、and an integer constant n0 1 such that cg(n) f(n) cg(n) for n n0 little-oh f(n) is o(g(n) if, for any constant c 0, there is an integer constant n0 0 such that f(n) cg(n) for n n0 little-omega f(n) is (g(n) if, for any constant c 0, there is an integer constant n0 0 such that f(n) cg(n) for n n0,Ana
29、lysis of Algorithms,27,Intuition for Asymptotic Notation,Big-Oh f(n) is O(g(n) if f(n) is asymptotically less than or equal to g(n) big-Omega f(n) is (g(n) if f(n) is asymptotically greater than or equal to g(n) big-Theta f(n) is (g(n) if f(n) is asymptotically equal to g(n) little-oh f(n) is o(g(n)
30、 if f(n) is asymptotically strictly less than g(n) little-omega f(n) is (g(n) if is asymptotically strictly greater than g(n),Analysis of Algorithms,28,Example Uses of the Relatives of Big-Oh,f(n) is (g(n) if, for any constant c 0, there is an integer constant n0 0 such that f(n) cg(n) for n n0 need
31、 5n02 cn0 given c, the n0 that satifies this is n0 c/5 0,5n2 is (n),f(n) is (g(n) if there is a constant c 0 and an integer constant n0 1 such that f(n) cg(n) for n n0 let c = 1 and n0 = 1,5n2 is (n),f(n) is (g(n) if there is a constant c 0 and an integer constant n0 1 such that f(n) cg(n) for n n0 let c = 5 and n0 = 1,5n2 is (n2),