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1、Levels of Categorization,Levels of Categorization,Conceptual hierarchies Categorization and composite word forms Basic level categorizes and basic experiences,Conclusion: folk taxonomies are characterized by gaps, inconsistencies and alternative paths.,Conceptual hierarchies,Type-of hierarchies Part
2、-whole hierarchies,Type-of hierarchies vs Part-whole hierarchies,Type of relationships: extensive and rigid (严格的) scientific classifications Experiential type-of hierarchies: folk taxonomies Part-whole hierarchies (or partonomies) are based on a relationship of continuity and connectivity between en
3、tities in the real world.,Kitchen appliance,refrigerator,cooker,kitchen,house,town,building,room,p/w,t/o,p/w,p/w,t/o,p/w,p/w,p/w,p/w,t/o,t/o,Type-of (t/o) and part-whole (p/w) relationship involving the categories kitchen, house and town,Type-of hierarchies vs Part-whole hierarchies,Part-whole super
4、ordinates assemble things on the basis of their conceptualized co-presence in time and space. Type-of superodinates collect things on the basis of conceptualized similarities. Part-whole and type-of relationships are alternatives from which speakers can choose according to their needs in specific sp
5、eech situations.,Categorization and composite word forms,Type-of and part-whole compounds The emergence of new basic level categories from compounds The myth of the simple subordinates,Type-of and part-whole compounds,Type-of and part-whole compounds,Part-whole compounds,see examples: “Apple juice”,
6、 “Coat collar”(p101,p103) Part-whole compounds: categories such as coat collar are conceived as parts or accessories(附件) of the wholes represented by the first element of the compound (coat), whose conceptual weight overrides the type-of relationship (a type of collar) in the minds of the ordinary l
7、anguage user.,The emergence of new basic level categories from compounds,The emergence of new basic level categories from compounds,Figure2.14: Attribute links of the subordinate category WHEELCHAIR Conclusions: 1.The more source categories are involved in the structuring of a composite category, th
8、e smaller the contribution of the individual cognitive category becomes. 2. A new, self-supporting basic level has been created, if the number source categories reaches a level that makes it difficult to handle the all, parasitic(寄生) categorization becomes irrelevant, the attributes are thought to b
9、e attached to the compound category itself.,The myth of the simple subordinates,Look at these subordinate words: Daisy : days eye (flower) Dime : decimus (the tenth) (money) Terrier : terra (earth) (dog),The myth of the simple subordinates,Conclusion: Most simple or unanalyzable subordinates are in
10、fact not simple in terms of underlying cognitive categories, but are based on an expressed modifier category and an unexpressed implicit(隐性的) head category.,The myth of the simple subordinates,Rose: Not only is subordinate to flower , but also is basic level status for this cognitive category Two ba
11、sic tenets(原则) of the cognitive approach: Cognitive units are not discrete. 2. Cognitive or folk taxonomies can be inconsistent by admitting competing superordinates.,Basic level categorizes and basic experiences:,Action categories Event categories Properties Static and locative relations,Action cat
12、egories,The first: lying Authors of the study: Coleman & Kay(1981) The dimensions for the cognitive category lie: Factual falsehood Falsity of belief Intention to deceive Method: fictitious stories “dinner party”, “a childs denial” Conclusion: The meanings of the verb lie can be understood as a cogn
13、itive category with prototypical instances which satisfy all three criteria and less prototypical instances that do not.,Action categories,EAT Three important criteria: Large bundles of correlated attributes Structured as prototype categories High potential for gestalt perception Conclusion: The mea
14、nings of the verb eat can be understood as a cognitive category with prototypical instances,Action categories,Walk:,Action categories,Conclusions: Verbal compounds are extremely rare in English. There is no a uniform gestalt for subordinates in action category. Many of the action categories seem clo
15、ser to the basic level than proper subordinates.,Event categories,Event category: action or object (or organism) categories are fused into categories of a secondary, but still very basic, nature. Perspective from partonomies:,PARTY,WELCOME,SMALL TALK,BUFFET MEAL,BRINKING,FAREWELL,DANCING,CONCLUSION:
16、 it is partonymic links (part-whole relationships) that seem to provide the texture for event categories.,Properties,Basic levels categories or basic experiences? Basic levels categories The category structure of properties depends on the object and organism categories.,Properties,Results: It is hel
17、pful for the understanding of collocational possibilities and restrictions of the adjective. Less certain: Whether they can be regarded as sufficient proof for Dirven and Taylors claim that TALLNESS is cognitive category with a prototype and rich cognitive structure. 2. Cognitive experiences Propert
18、ies may reflect basic experiences, which can be seen on a par (标准) with the bodily experiences of wholes and parts.,Static and locative relations,Prepositions : up-down, in-out, front-back Conclusion: Prepositions reflect basic experiences. For properties, locative and static relations, the analysis
19、 in terms of prototype categories is only one possibility. An alternative interpretation of these properties and relations is based on the notion of image schema.,References：,温格瑞尔(Ungerer,F.), (德)施密德(Schmid,H.-J), 认知语言学入门=An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics:英文-二版，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2008.10 (2011.10重印) (德)弗里德里希温格瑞尔，(德)汉斯-尤格施密特著；彭利贞，许国萍，赵微译，认知语言学导论. 第二版， 上海：复旦大学出版社，2009.4 吴世雄，陈维振，范畴理论的发展及对认知语言学的贡献J,外语教学与研究,1996,(4):14-19. 张再红，范畴理论的发展及其对语义研究的贡献J,华中科技大学，2008.,