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1、语言学知识点,I 语言学导论 II 语言学主要分支学科 III 语言学的流派和理论,I 语言学导论,1. design feature of language （语言的定义特征） 2. Language Families (世界语言分类) 3. important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 4. scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围),1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征) defining properties of human language that distin
2、guish it from any animal system of communication,1. design feature of language 语言定义特征,1)Arbitrariness（任意性） 2)Duality(二层性) 3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性) 4)Displacement（移位性） 5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性),1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their mea
3、ning. 举例： 书, book, livre 喜欢，like，aimer,2）Duality（二层性）: 定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. 举例： Sounds syllables words phrases clauses sentences texts/discourses,3） Creativity/Productivity（创造性）: 定义：L
4、anguage can be used to create new meanings because of its duality 举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/- carp or park 举例2：England, defeated, France England defeated France. France defeated England.,4）Displacement（替代性）: 定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of
5、communication.,5） Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）: 定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. 反例：印度狼孩,3. Design feature 定义特征,1)Arbitrariness（任意性） 2)Duality(二层性) 3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性) 4)Displacement（移位性） 5)Cultural Transmission(文化传
6、递性) 如何记忆: 五性，创意遗传,4. Important Distinctions in Linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 1) descriptive & prescriptive 2) synchronic & diachronic 3) langue & parole 4) competence & performance,1) Descriptive （描述性） vs. Prescriptive （规定性） Descriptive: describing how things are. prescriptive: prescribing how things
7、ought to be,Important Distinctions in Linguistics,举例： Dont say X. People dont say X. The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.,2). Synchronic（共时性） vs. Diachronic （历时性） synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. diachronic: the study of a la
8、nguage through the course of its history.,举例： 研究1800年的英语发音 Synchronic studies (共时性研究) 研究1800-1900的法语语法变化 Diachronic studies (历时研究),2. 世界语言分类,2. 世界语言分类,Important Distinctions in Linguistics,3). langue（语言） & parole （言语） Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguistics langue: abstract linguistic s
9、ystem parole: actual realization of langue,Important Distinctions in Linguistics,举例： 汉语系统 langue 每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语 parole,Important Distinctions in Linguistics,4) Competence（语言能力） and performance （语言运用） theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基) competence: users knowledge of rules about the linguistic system. perf
10、ormance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.,5. Scope of Linguistics (语言学的研究范围) 1）按研究内容来分 2）按研究导向来分,语言学分类-按研究内容分,语言学分类-按研究内容分,语言学分类-按研究导向分,语言学分类-按研究内容分,语言学分类-按研究内容分,考点: 1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别 2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音 3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征,Phonetics studies all s
11、peech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received. Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）,举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中
12、的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究,Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.,语音学分类,articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers production acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmissions medium auditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receivers reception,如何记忆p
13、honetics和phonolgy的区别: 联想: mathematics, physics, mechanics phonetics 语言学，-ics科学性更强 geology, sociology, astrology phonology 音系学，-ology人文性更强,How speech sounds are made,Speech organs,Position of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音),Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting t
14、he air stream go through without causing obstruction 清音举例：p,s,t Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates 浊音: b,z,d,The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, t
15、he description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.,音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 音系学重要概念: phone音子， phoneme音位 (音系研究的基本单位) supra-segmental features超音段特征,Phone(音子)：a
16、 phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones 举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 所以too 和 tea 中的 /t/两个不同的音子,Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which
17、 can distinguish two words. 举例： tea 和 sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morpheme,What is the point of departure of phonology? A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme,What is the point of departure of phonology? A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme(音位),What is the point of departure of phonetics? A. phone B. sound
18、C. voice D. phoneme,What is the point of departure of phonetics? A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme,Suprasegmental features (超音段特征),Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments . The principal suprasegmentals are:,Supra-segmental features (超音段特征)： stress （
19、重音） 举例: perfect (adj) 和 perfect (v) tone (声调)/pitch (音高): 定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds. 举例: m妈, m麻, m马， m骂 比较：英语单词，如me,intonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. 举例:,Morpholog
20、y 形态学,1. 学科定义 2. 语素的定义和分类 3. 词的分类（classification of words）,形态学研究的基本单位,1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning. 举例： ball football balls,Types of Morphemes,Free morphemes vs. Bound morpheme
21、s（自由语素和黏着语素）: Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.,Types of Bound Morpheme,Inflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspec
22、t, case, tense) Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=inflectional affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaning,dis+like+s derivational free inflectional morpheme,light+en+ed free derivational inflectional morpheme,Derivational morpheme(改变词义): 改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro- 改变词性：en-, -full, -ment Inflectional mor
23、pheme（改变语法含义）: 改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s, 改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed, 改变形容词的级：-er, -est,词的分类-按构词法分,如何区分派生词（derivational word）和 合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。 Businessman: business + man Playboy: play + boy Mouthful: mouth + ful Lighten: light + en,词的分类-按词义分,词的分类-按开放性分,词的分类-按在句子重
24、要性分,Syntax 句法,考点 1. 定义 2. 句法范畴 3. 句子类型,1. Syntax定义：: studies internal structure of sentence and rules of sentence-formation,Category(范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb (起相同作用的一类语言单位) Syntacti
25、cal category(句法范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in sentence-formation. （在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位）,Syntactical category(句法范畴),Word-lexical category Phrase-phrasal category Clause-clausal category Sentence,Lexical Category 词法范畴 =Parts of Speech 词类,phrase specifier
26、 head complement a car five meters away,72,Sentence Types(句子类型),simple Sentence complex non-simple compound,4. 句子分类： Simple sentence 简单句 Coordinate sentence 并列句 Complex sentence 复杂句,simple sentence 简单句 定义：also called independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thou
27、ght.,练习： Jim and Mike play football every afternoon. (simple sentence) Mary goes to the library and studies every day. (coordinate sentence),coordinate sentence并列句: contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator(并列连词) such as and, or, but etc. Coordinators are often preceded by a comma. 例句
28、: I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. Lily went to play football, but Maria went shopping.,You have to do it one way or the other. Simple sentence The workers were cheerful, or at least they appeared to be cheerful. Coordinate sentence,complex sentence 定义：A complex senten
29、ce has an independent clause joined with one or more dependent clauses by one or more subordinators(从属连词) such as if, when, because, althoug.,As he is growing old, he seldom goes out. He is growing old, whereas he becomes healthier. 如何区分并列和复杂句-看连词表示的关系 并列，选择和转折关系-并列句 时间，条件，原因和让步关系-复杂句,Semantics,考点：
30、1. 定义：study of meaning 2. 两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义 3. 五种词语语义关系,Ludwig Wittgenstein: The meaning of a word is its use in the language. Meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts. Reference（指称）: how language refers to the real physical
31、 world (语言指代外部物质世界) Sense（涵义）: inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is abstract and the meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. (语言形式的内在意义),concept symbolizes refers to symbol referent (word) stands for (object),Synonymy 同义,Synonymy 同义: sameness or similarity of meaning. Words that ar
32、e close in meaning are called synonyms.,同义分类举例,dialectical synonym地域同义词： 举例: fall and autumn, flat and apartment stylistic synonym风格同义词： 举例: cop and police, kid and offspring collocational synonym搭配同义词： 举例: accuse of, charge with, rebuke for Semantically different synonym语义稍有不同的同义词: 举例: surprise and
33、 astound, blame and rebuke,Antonymy 反义,Antonymy 反义: oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms. Antonymy 反义关系分类： gradable antonymy 等级反义 complementary antonymy互补反义 converse antonymy反向反义,Gradable antonymy等级反义,young -middle-aged- old big -middle-sized- small good-av
34、erage-bad,Complementary antonymy互补反义,alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty,odd : even pass : fail boy : girl hit : miss,Converse antonymy反向反义,buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife,teacher : student above : below before : after host : guest empl
35、oyer : employee,Hyponymy 上下义关系,Hyponymy上下义: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Superordinate/hypernym上义词: the more general term Hyponym下义词: the more specific term,举例: hypernym上义词: animal Hyponym下义词: bird, fish, tiger, cat 如何记忆: hyper-向上
36、 hype 炒作 hypo-向下 hypothesis 假设,Animal bird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .,Polysemy 一词多义,Polysemy: the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called polysemic word. 举例: Fish: 1. 鱼 2. 鱼肉 3. 水生动物 4. 捕鱼 5. 寻找,Homonymy同音/同形异义词 : words having different meanings have
37、 the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. Identical in sound: homophones 同音词 Identical in spelling: homograph 同形词 Identical in both: complete homonyms 同音同形词,homophones 同音词： 举例: knight and night, piece and peace homograph 同形词 举例: tear (v) and tear (n), lead (v) a
38、nd lead (n) complete homonyms 同音同形词: fast (adj) and fast (n),如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象: beauty, fish, ball, scale beauty: 美丽；美女 fish: 鱼；鱼肉；水生动物；捕鱼；寻找 ball: 球；舞会 scale: 规模；鱼鳞 看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没有就是同音同形词,Pragmatics 语用学,考点: 定义和与语义学的区别：study of meaning in context or in use 言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为） 会话原则,2. Speech
39、Act Theory,John Austin (1911-1960) How to Do Things with Words (1962) Main Idea: things can be done with words,Constatives(叙事句) vs. performatives（施为句） Constatives（叙事句）: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg: I go to the
40、park every Sunday. I teach English.,Performatives（施为句）: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.,Three Speech Acts (三种言语行为
41、),A locutionary act (言内行为): the act of uttering words, phrase, sentences. It is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act（言外行为）: an act of expression speakers intention; it is an act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act（言后行为）:
42、the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.,三种话语行为-举例,老师对学生说: You have left the door open. Locutionary act(言内行为): the act of uttering the words of “you”, “have”, “left”, “the”, “door”, “open” Illocutinary act(言外行为): the act of expressing the teachers intention of asking
43、 the student to close the door. Perlocutionary act(言后行为): the effect of the utterance: student goes to close the door,103,Illocutionary Act Theory,美国哲学家John Searle (约翰-塞尔， 1932-) 在Austin理论基础上把言外行为进一步分为5类： 陈述（assertives），指示(directives)，承诺(commissives)，表达(expressives)，宣告（declaratives）,Conversational I
44、mplicature（会话含义理论）,Theorist：英国语言学家Herbert Paul Grice (格莱斯，1913-1988) Main Idea: People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.,The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作原则),Maxim of Quality（数量准则） Maxim of Quantity（质量准则） Maxim of Relation（关系准则） Maxim of Manner（方式准则）,The Cooperative Principle
45、 (CP，合作原则),Maxim of Quality（数量准则） Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence; Maxim of Quantity（质量准则） Maxim of Relation（关系准则） Maxim of Manner（方式准则）,Maxim of Quality（数量准则） Maxim of Quantity（质量准则）： Make your contribution as informative as required (for
46、the current purposes of the exchange). Do not make your contribution more informative than required. Maxim of Relation（关系准则） Maxim of Manner（方式准则）,Maxim of Quality（数量准则） Maxim of Quantity（质量准则） Maxim of Relation（关系准则）： Be relative. Maxim of Manner（方式准则）,Maxim of Quality（数量准则） Maxim of Quantity（质量准则）
47、 Maxim of Relation（关系准则） Maxim of Manner(方式准则)： Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. Be orderly.,Macro-Linguistics 宏观语言学,Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 1.定义 2.语言变体 language variety 3.双语,Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 1定义：The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation bet
48、ween language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. Speech语言变体 双语,Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 定义 Speech variety/language variety 语言变体: refer to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. 双语,Pidgin(洋泾浜语/皮钦语)：a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speaks different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 上海洋泾浜,上海话中的洋泾浜英语 “蹩脚”（BILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的） “瘪三”（BEG SIR，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。 “赤佬”是