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1、社會網絡簡介,2004 蘇國賢,Source: Steve Borgatti, http:/ Steve Borgatti, http:/ Steve Borgatti, http:/ Steve Borgatti,Sociological theory,Source: Steve Borgatti,Source: Steve Borgatti,社會網絡分析的崛起,透過社會網絡分析可以較為精準的勾勒出何謂的社會結構環境。社會環境可以表為互動單位(interacting units)的固定關係模式或規則。一般將這種固定的關係模式稱為結構(structure)。 將焦點置於關係模式需要一套有別於傳
2、統統計分析的新方法及分析概念。,社會網絡的觀點,(1)行動者及其行動之間具有互相依賴關係，而不是將之視為獨立自主的個體。 (2)行動者之間的連結關係(ties)為資源移轉及流通的管道。 (3)網絡模型認為網絡結構環境可以為個別行動提供機會或產生行動的侷限(constraint)。 (4)網絡模型將結構視為是行動者之間的持續關係模式。(Wasserman & Faust, 1994:4),網絡分析的理論基礎,Theory: A structural Approach to Sociology Wellman Emirbayer,“Structural Analysis: from method
3、and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Five elements: 社會行為的結構侷限 專注於社會行動單位彼此之間的關係focus on relations among units (as opposed to categories) 與同重的他人的複雜關係影響行為relationships among multiple alters affect people behavior 結構是網絡的網絡structure is a network of networks 直接處理結構的分析方法analytic methods deal with this st
4、ructure directly,網絡分析的理論基礎,Five paradigmatic characteristics of structural analysis 結構分析的五個典範特質,(1) 以結構對於行動的侷限來解釋行為，而不是以行動者的某種內在力量（如內化的社會規範）驅使行為朝向自願、具目的性的方向來解釋行為Behavior is interpreted in terms of structural constraints on activity rather than in terms of inner forces within units (e.g., “socializat
5、ion to norm“) that impel behavior in a voluntaristic, sometimes teleological, push toward the desired goal.,Five paradigmatic characteristics of structural analysis 結構分析的五個典範特質,(2) 分析策略專注於行動單位間的關連，而非試圖對各種內在屬性來進行整理分類來進行分析。Analyses focus on the relations between units, instead of trying to sort units
6、into categories defined by the inner attributes (or essence of) these units.,Five paradigmatic characteristics of structural analysis 結構分析的五個典範特質,(3) 關心多個互動單位所構成的關係整體模式如何影響個別行動者的行為，而非行為者如何與多個獨立的雙人組進行互動。A central consideration is how the patterned relationships among multiple alters jointly affect ne
7、twork members behavior. Hence, it is not assumed that network members engage only in multiple duets with separate alters.,Five paradigmatic characteristics of structural analysis 結構分析的五個典範特質,(4) 結構被視為是網絡的網絡，這些網絡可能組成更大的類別群組也可能毫無群組可言。網絡分析並不事先預設結構是由界線分明的群體所組成的。Structural is treated as network of networ
8、ks that may or may not be partitioned into discrete groups. It is not assumed a priori that tightly bounded groups are, intrinsically, the building blocks of the structure.,Five paradigmatic characteristics of structural analysis 結構分析的五個典範特質,(5) 分析方法上強調直接針對社會結構的關係模式來進行分析，以補強假設分析單位為獨立戶不影響的主流社會科學方法。An
9、alytic methods deal directly with the patterned, relational nature of social structure in order to supplement and sometimes supplant mainstream methods that demand independent units of analysis.,結構分析的傳統,Historical roots: Social anthropology (Barnes 1954; Bott 1957). Moved from normative relations to
10、 observed relations. Early sociologists & Social psychologists start using sociograms (Moreno, Coleman). Focused on details of sociometric structure. Group around Harrison H. White really pushed the theoretical development of a network perspective as the basis for sociology (late 60s, early 70s),結構分
11、析的傳統,英國社會人類學家：英國的結構功能學派專注於在有限封閉群體內，文化如何塑造適當行為。 大量的城鄉流動會不會使得新移民變成都市問題？ Migrants were enmeshed in complex and supportive social networks, cutting across tribal, residential, and workplace boundaries. Botts research on conjugal roles,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substanc
12、e.”,H. White: “The presently existing, largely categorical descriptions of social structure have no solid theoretical grounding; furthermore, network concepts may provide the only way to construct a theory of social structure.” (p.25),Form Vs. Content,Integration of large-scale social systems,網絡分析的理
13、論基礎,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Major Claims:,(1) Structured social relationships are a more powerful source of sociological explanation than personal attributes of system members. (2) Norms emerge from location in structured systems of social relationshi
14、ps (3) Social Structures determine the operation of dyadic relationships (4) The world is composed of networks, not groups (5) Structural methods supplant and supplement individualistic methods,網絡分析的理論基礎,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,(1) Structured social r
15、elationships are a more powerful source of sociological explanation than personal attributes of system members. 傳統的社會學分析將社會結構視為個人屬性的加總（性別，年齡，社會經濟地位）。這些集體的屬性被個體以個別的方式來擁有。傳統的分析企圖將具有相似屬性個體分門別類，產生一些問題：,網絡分析的理論基礎,Three Basic Principles of Social Science Research,Yu Xie University of Michigan,First Princi
16、ple,Variability is the very essence of social science research. “Variability Principle.”,Second Principle,Social grouping reduces such variability. “Social Grouping Principle.”,What is a Social Group?,I do not take a stand between a nominalist view versus a realist view. Social grouping is meaningfu
17、l only in terms of a social outcome. Thus, social grouping may have different meanings when applied to different social outcomes. Social grouping reduces variability in a social outcome. More reduction, more significance is a social grouping. There are always within-group variation - variability not
18、 explained by social grouping. There is a tradeoff between parsimony (of social grouping) and accuracy (reduced variability): a more detailed grouping scheme results in a larger reduction of variability.,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,傳統架構的問題,具有相同屬性（性別，種族）,內
19、化相同的規範,任何與平均人概念相去太遠者被視為是偏離者。,傳統的行為解釋破壞原本的社會結構,原始的社會結構,傳統的行為解釋破壞原本的社會結構,女性選民,男性選民,依性別來分析投票行為,原始的社會結構,Third Principle,Patterns of population variability vary with social context, which is often defined by time and space. “Social Context Principle”,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theo
20、ry and substance.”,1.行動者被視為是不具有結構的獨立單位(astructure independent unit)，加總破壞連結個體之間的固定關係模式(patterned connections)。 2. 分析的焦點在於各種集結屬性之間的因果關連。當一種類別屬性被證明為具有解釋力時，所有具有該屬性的個體也被視為是預期會有同樣的行為。 3. 忽略跨團體及跨類別的連結。 4.這種分析比較容易導致以規範來解釋行為。以規範來解釋的傾向使得研究者比較注意相似的行為而非相異的行為。,網絡分析的理論基礎,傳統的解釋架構有何缺陷？,從社會學的觀點來看，性別的重要性不在於其生物的屬性本身，而
21、是附著在這些屬性上的社會意涵(social meaning attached to these attributes). 無論性別的生物性基礎是否有產生變化，性別的社會意義可以隨不同的社會脈絡而改變。 例子：教育程度對升遷的影響為context-specific,性別與薪資差異,社會機會及資源的分配機制：Testing, Sorting, Selecting, Distributing 為何女性的勞動報酬較低？ 早期勞動法令不嚴，雇主比較容易將女性安排在爛位子(低自主性的位置low autonomy position)。,性別與薪資差異,決定工作自主性高低或報酬高低的結構性條件比較不容易隨時間
22、改變。因此結構的影響可以推論到不同時代。 Research results on the structural effects generalize over time. 對於生理屬性特質如何影響機會機資源分佈的研究，為對於某一特定社會在特定時點上的新聞式的描述報導。只有在另一個個社會或另一時代中，這種屬性與社會結構之間也具有同樣特定關連時，才能產生因果關連。,性別與薪資差異,例如：婦女的報酬今昔比。 並沒有固定的規則可以連結性別或種族與薪資差異的關係。但可能有某種社會機制可以解釋性別及種族在勞動市場的不同機會結構 。,關係所界定的社會結構位置,OUTCOME,直接成因,Socially si
23、gnificant attributes of position occupants (性別，種族，教育，職業）,Spurious correlations between attributes and outcome,Attribute-position correlation idiosyncratic to time and place,Sex, race, age, and so on are imperfect indicators of underlying structural variables directly causing outcome differences.,Sou
24、rce: Ron Burt,從網絡來解釋行為與傳統的解釋架構有何不同？,網絡分析的行為解釋模型 傳統社會科學對於行為的解釋，僅強調從行動個體的特性【 actors attributes】及行動者雙方關係的本質【 the nature of dyad】來瞭解行為，而低估了網絡的重要性。 網絡分析是透過網絡的整體組成性質來瞭解行為 沒有獨立存在的關係。所有的關係皆鑲嵌在更大的網絡中。 在網絡中的位置決定個體的行為動機(motivation)、行動機會(opportunities)及限制(constraints)。,從網絡來解釋行為與傳統的解釋架構有何不同？,網絡分析的行為解釋模型,由網絡關係所構成
25、的社會結構(行動的社會脈絡）,行動,行動的機會及侷限,刻意的或不預期的改變了社會結構,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,(2) Norms emerge from location in structured systems of social relationships 以內化的規範來解釋行為為心理學的解釋而非社會學的解釋。 以內化規範來解釋行為隱含社會整合為常態。,網絡分析的理論基礎,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor t
26、o theory and substance.”,(2) Norms emerge from location in structured systems of social relationships Structural analysis seek explanations in the regularities of how people and collectivities actually behave rather than in the regularities of their beliefs about how they ought to behave. 規範為結構地位的效果
27、而非原因。 有些網絡學者認為規範僅能在結構的侷限下作用。 更激進的網絡學者認為社會規範為社會結構的函數：例如：公司的對外奉獻(Galaskiewicz, 1985),網絡分析的理論基礎,從網絡來解釋行為與傳統的解釋架構有何不同？,網絡分析的行為解釋模型,由網絡關係所構成的社會結構(行動的社會脈絡）,行為者的動機、偏好、興趣,行動,行動的機會及侷限,刻意的或不預期的改變了社會結構,Social distribution of possibilities,physicians seek each other out to discuss new medical treatments,Copyrig
28、ht 2003, Valdis Krebs,誰是意見領袖？,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,(3) Social Structures determine the operation of dyadic relationships 很多對偶行動的分析將對偶關係視為獨立的分析單位。 The social structure features greatly determined the milieux in which dyadic ties operate. 很多關係的維繫或解體與
29、當事的兩造所處的結構有關。例如：大學中的男女關係,網絡分析的理論基礎,對偶關係的相嵌性,A和 B在下面兩種狀況下會有相同的互動模式嗎?,A,B,A,B,F,G,H,C,D,E,C,D,E,F,G,H,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,(4) The world is composed of networks, not groups 將社會結構描述成各樣團體的組成過度的簡化了複雜的社會結構，真正的社會結構應該是由成員在多重社會圈中的重疊交錯關係所編織而成的社會系統(network me
30、mbers crosscutting memberships in multiple social circles that weave together social systems).,網絡分析的理論基礎,What is a High School?,Source: James Moody的投影片,From James Moody,Source: James Moody的投影片,Source: James Moody的投影片,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,(5) Struct
31、ural methods supplant and supplement individualistic methods 社會網絡分析對於傳統分析的最大補充並非僅限於方法上，更重要的是問問題的方式不同。 Formal description: provides a vocabulary and set of formal definitions for expressing theoretical concepts and properties. Model and theory evaluation and testing: test theories about relational pr
32、ocesses or structures.,網絡分析的理論基礎,公司合併後的人際互動,綠：被合併公司經理人 紅：合併公司經理人 灰：新雇用經理人,Copyright 2003, Valdis Krebs,為什麼公司合併會成功或失敗？,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Analytic Principles,Ties are usually asymmetrically reciprocal, differing in content and intensity. Ties link
33、 network members indirectly as well as directly. Hence, they must be defined within the context of larger network structures. Ties are structured, and thus networks are not random, but instead clusters, boundaries and cross-linkages Cross-linkages connected clusters as well as individuals Asymmetric
34、 ties and complex networks differentially distribute scares resources Networks structure collaborative and competitive activities to secure scarce resources,網絡分析的理論基礎,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Analytic Principles,關係經常在資源流通與互動強度上為不對稱Ties are usually asym
35、metrically reciprocal, differing in content and intensity. 為什麼關係會不對稱？Involuntary nature of ties 不對稱有何意涵？,網絡分析的理論基礎,physicians seek each other out to discuss new medical treatments,Copyright 2003, Valdis Krebs,箭頭方向代表單向諮詢意見,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Analy
36、tic Principles,行動者之間有直接的關係也有間接的關連，因此比需置於整個網絡結構中來定位。Ties link network members indirectly as well as directly. Hence, they must be defined within the context of larger network structures.,網絡分析的理論基礎,physicians seek each other out to discuss new medical treatments,Copyright 2003, Valdis Krebs,間接關係有何關係？,
37、“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Analytic Principles,關係是結構化的，不是隨機的，因此網絡也不是隨機的，而是群聚有界線的。Ties are structured, and thus networks are not random, but instead clusters, boundaries and cross-linkages 關係遞移性Transitivity：朋友的朋友比較容易成為朋友而非敵人。 關係有限性Finite limits：一個人與人交往的時間
38、精力有限。 Encourage the formation of ties within clusters and few ties across boundaries.,網絡分析的理論基礎,From Borgatti et al. in Aids & Behaviors,如果關係是隨機的，則疾病傳播的結構應該是?,Source: Borgatti的投影片,Airborne contagion -contact tracing,黑：感染源 粉紅：被感染 綠：未被感染 灰：感染地位不明,Copyright 2003, Valdis Krebs,“Structural Analysis: from
39、 method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Analytic Principles,Asymmetric ties and complex networks differentially distribute scares resources,網絡分析的理論基礎,Copyright 2003, Valdis Krebs,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Analytic Principles,Cross-linkages connec
40、ted clusters as well as individuals 例如：Interlocking directorates,網絡分析的理論基礎,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,A,K,N,L,M,H,B,重點不在A與B同在一個董事會上，而是A和B同為兩家不同公司的董事而將這兩家公司產生連結,“Structural Analysis: from method and metaphor to theory and substance.”,Analytic Principles,網絡結構透過合作競爭來爭取稀少資源Networks structure collaborative and compet
41、itive activities to secure scarce resources,網絡分析的理論基礎,“A manifesto for Relational Sociology”,“Substantialism vs Relationalism” Theoretical Domains: Power, equality, freedom, agency Substantive domains (research): Social Structure Network analysis Culture Social Psychology Problems Boundary specifica
42、tion Network dynamics Causality Normative implication,網絡分析的理論基礎,substantialism and relationalism,The key question confronting sociologists in the present day is not “material versus ideal,” “structure versus agency,” “individual versus society,” or any of the other dualisms so often noted; rather, i
43、t is the choice between substantialism and relationalism.,substantialism and relationalism,the substantialist perspective: it is substances of various kinds (things, beings, essences) that constitute the fundamental units of all inquiry. 主體先存於 行動或關係 與語法結構有關： “process-reduction”風吹，河流，好像風及河可以存於靜止狀態,Tw
44、o major subtantialist approaches,(1) Self-action: Methodological individualism: self-action, rational choice, game theory. Norm-following individual: sociology, internalized norm Holistic theory : 以團體為主體單位的分析Such entities possess emergent properties not reducible to the discrete elements of which th
45、ey consist. sequences of action如社會運動,Two major subtantialist approaches,(2) inter-action: “variable-centered approach,” Andrew Abbott (1988, p. 170) points out, a compelling imagery of fixed entities with variable attributes that “interact, in causal or actual time, to create outcomes” it is the var
46、iable attributes themselves that “act,” that supply initiative, in interactional research,Trans-action,Relational theorists reject the notion that one can posit discrete, pre-given units such as the individual or society as ultimate starting points of sociological analysis. Individual persons, wheth
47、er strategic or norm following, are inseparable from the transactional contexts within which they are embedded. What is distinct about the transactional approach is that it sees relations between terms or units as preeminently dynamic in nature, as unfolding, ongoing processes rather than as static ties among inert substances.,Theoretical implication,Power Equality Freedom Agency,Research direction and techniques,Social structure (social network analysis) Culture New Structural Social pyschology,Problems,Boundary specification Network dynamics Causality Normative implications,