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1、English Composition,一、标点符号的用法 三、作文的基本要素-词、句子、段落,句号 Period .,用以表示一个句子的结束: Hockey(曲棍球) is a popular sport in Canada. 用在缩写中: Dr. Bethune was a Canadian who worked in China. It is 4:00 p.m. (post meridiem) in New York right now.,标点符号的用法,问号 Question Mark ?,在句子的结尾使用问号表示是直接疑问句： How many provinces are there
2、 in Canada? 注意：在间接疑问句结尾不要加问号： *The teacher asked the class a question? *Do not ask me why?,叹号 Exclamation Mark !,在句子的结尾使用叹号表示惊讶、兴奋等情绪： We won the Stanley Cup! The forest is on fire!,逗号 Comma ,用于独立成份后，插入语前后及句子中的停顿： Therefore, we should write a letter to the prime minister. 在直接引语中引出说话人： “I can come to
3、day,“ she said, “but not tomorrow.” 排列三个或以上的名词： Ontario(安大略湖), Quebec, and B.C. (British Columbia加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚省) are the three biggest provinces. 引出非限定性定语从句 Emily Carr, who was born in 1871, was a great painter. 引导主从复合句：,Since you know English, you should translate this paper. Note: 逗号不能连接两个分句，除非和and一起
4、使用： The festival is very popular, and people from all over the world visit each year. 如果有三个或有一个以上的分句相互并列，且只有最后一个分句前面有and或or，在这些分句之间，包括最后两个分句之间，都需要用逗号： Prices fell, interest rates fell, and employment figures rose. 这类句子中的逗号称为连续逗号(serial comma),逗号 Comma ,撇号 Apostrophe ,表示属格: This is Davids computer. T
5、hese are the players things. (things that belong to the player) （Note: 对于复数形式的名词，只加） 缩略形式： I dont know how to fix it.,引号Quotation Marks “,直接引出某人说的话： The prime minister said, “We will win the election.” “I can come today,“ she said, “but not tomorrow.“,冒号Colon :,冒号后面的内容是说明冒号前面的内容，或者是满足所提出的要求，有“如下”或“即
6、”的含义： Ive just had some good news: Ive been offered a job in a law firm. (说明部分是个分句，可以把这个分句看成是前面那个分句中名词短语的同位语。) There are three positions in hockey: goalie, defence, and forward. 曲棍球: 守门员，后卫，前锋 冒号后面为正式列举事物，相当于for example, eg, namely的用法： Please send the stipulated items: your birth certificate, your p
7、assport, and the correct fee.,分号Semicolon ;,将两个相关的句子连接起来（作用相当于并列连词and）: The festival is very popular; people from all over the world visit each year. (=The festival is very popular, and people from all over the world visit each year.),破折号Dash ,前后留空格 破折号后面的句子是对之前句子的总结： Mild, wet, and cloudy these are
8、 the characteristics of weather in Qingdao. 放在句子中间加入额外的注释： The children Pierre, Laura, and Ashley went to the store. Most Canadians but not all voted in the last election. 表示某人在说话过程中被打断 The woman said, “I want to ask “ when the earthquake began to shake the room.,连字符Hyphen -,前后不空格 连接两个单词 sweet-smell
9、ing fire-resistant 连接前缀 anti-war non-smoker 在数字中使用 one-quarter twenty-three,back,文章的基本要素 词、句子和段落 一、选词 二、造句 三、组段,标准：意义清晰，形象生动，语法正确，符合表达习惯。下面我们分析句子中用词不当的例子： A. When he was at school, he won first reward for good behavior. 句中用reward（酬劳）词不达意，应该为prize（奖励，奖金）。 B. It would be carrying a risk to let the chi
10、ld go to school by himself. carrying应改为running，因为run a risk（冒险）是固定搭配。,选词,注意词的正确用法： *The factory discharged so much waste water that needed to be dealt with. The factory discharged so much waste water that needed to be disposed of. 比较： There are so many problems to deal with. We have to dispose of th
11、is pile of old papers and magazines. 我们得把这堆旧报纸和杂志处理掉。,选词,back,造句,三个条件： 完整性 连贯性 清晰度,造句,1. 完整性(unity)，即意思的完整性和结构的完整性。 （1）意思的完整性是指一个句子应该表达一个完整的意思。请看下面的句子： 意思不完整：Bikes are so popular in China. 修改后：Bikes are so popular in China that almost every family has at least one. （2）结构的完整性指句子在结构方面没有缺损。请看句子：,造句,A.
12、残缺句: It is incredible to many people. Cigarette smokers spend money for illness. 修改后：It is incredible to many people that cigarette smokers spend money for illness. B. 残缺句: I think the film is poor. Even though so many people enjoy it. 修改后：I think the film is poor, even though so many people enjoy i
13、t.,造句,为了使句子保持完整性，还必须避免： A. Run-on Sentence（串句）： 特点：串句是指误将两个串在一起的句子当成一个句子，有的用逗号隔开，有的的什么标点符号都没有使用。 He does not speak too rapidly, his voice is loud, it can be heard by everyone in the classroom. 修改后: He does not speak too rapidly and his voice is so loud that it can be heard by everyone in the classro
14、om.,造句,B. 融洽句: It was raining hard, they could not work in the field. 修改后: It was raining hard, so they could not work in the field. As It was raining hard, they could not work in the field. It was raining hard; they could not work in the field. It was raining hard. They could not work in the field.
15、 It was raining so hard that they could not work in the field.,back,造句,2. 连贯性（coherence）即句子之间的连贯和句子各部分之间的连贯。 结构不平行： (误) I wrote to him, but my letter was not answered. (正) I wrote to him, but he didnt answer my letter. (误) Our new car not only is more economical but also it is more comfortable than
16、our old one. (正) Our new car is not only more economical but also more comfortable than our old one.,造句,动词的不定式、分词、动名词的逻辑主语不一致： 例1: To succeed in a scientific research project, persistence is needed. 修改后：To succeed in a scientific research project, one needs to be persistent. 例2：On squeezing onto the
17、 bus, my wallet was lost. 修改后： On squeezing onto the bus, I lost my wallet.,代词所指的意思模棱两可: She told my sister that she is wrong. 修改后: She admitted that she was wrong and said so to my sister.,造句,造句,修饰语位置不对: （误） I have interesting something to tell you. （正）I have something interesting to tell you. （误）I
18、 nearly earned a hundred dollars last week. （正）I earned nearly a hundred dollars last week.,造句,有关主谓一致的错误： （误） The Chinese girl together with her two American friends are eating at restaurant. （正） The Chinese girl together with her two American friends is eating at restaurant. （误） To fight and to win
19、 was their aims. （正） To fight and to win were their aims.,back,造句,3. 清晰度（clarity）：突出句子的主要意思；正确运用修饰语；注意修饰语的位置；正确使用标点符号。 主要意思不突出：They were just turning the corner, when they heard the noise of a shot. 修改后：Just as they were turning the corner, they heard the noise of a shot. 注意：句子要表达的主要信息应放在复合句的主句中,bac
20、k,组段,一、段落和段落的组成 二、过渡词 (transitional words),二、段落和段落的组成,（一） 段落的写作步骤 （二） 段落扩展,（一）段落的写作步骤,首先要思考这一段落的中心思想，用一个完整的句子表达出来 (主题句) , 然后收集能够证明和解释这个中心思想的细节和例子。最后按逻辑顺序组织安排好这些材料，这样就有了一个段落的粗略草案。 四级作文一般都是说明文或议论文，其段落最常见的框架模式如流程所示 :,Topic Sentence （主题句） Supporting Sentence (主要扩展句1) Supporting Sentence (次要扩展句1) Support
21、ing Sentence (次要扩展句2) Supporting Sentence (主要扩展句2) Supporting Sentence (次要扩展句1) Supporting Sentence(次要扩展句2) Concluding Sentence（结尾句）,例如,Wherever one lives in the city or in the country, there are some good reasons for owing a car (topic sentence ). First, cars provide the most convenient form of tra
22、nsportation ( development sentence1). Second, a car is a comfortable way to travel, especially in the winter time (development sentence2).,例如,Finally, a driver is usually safe in his car when he is out at night ( development sentence3). Therefore, many people favor owning a car (concluding sentence)
23、.,Back,段落的组成 主题句 ( topic sentence ) 扩展句 ( development sentence ) 结论句 ( concluding sentence ),（二）段落扩展,主题句,主题句就是提出段落主题，它是一个段落的中心，要求全段其他所有的文字都围绕它展开。它指出了这段内容的主导思想。主题句既可以用在段落的开始或中间, 也可以用在段落的末尾,尽量放置于一个段落的开始, 这既有助于组织材料, 也可以使文章结构清楚。写好段落的主题句是写好作文的关键。,1一个好的主题句首先应该紧扣文章的中心思想, 把该段落的内容限定在文章的中心内容之内。 例如: pollution是
24、一个比较大的题目，一篇100多字的短文根本不可能容纳它的全部内容，但是，通过各个段落的主题句把内容限定在一定的范围之内，各段的主题句都是该段落的第一句。我们不难看出，文中三个段落的主题句都紧扣文章的标题，并很好地限定了段落的内容。例文：,pollution 污染对人类有害 为防止污染，近年来采取了一些措施。 然而，污染问题尚未完全解决。 Pollution is harmful to human beings. Polluted water causes many kinds of diseases even take mans life. Dirty air and poisonous ga
25、s cause stinging eyes and running nose. Pollutants erode metal and buildings.,Measures have been taken to control pollution. In recent years, legislative steps have been introduced to control pollution. Rivers are being cleaned, air is purified, and pollutants are being trapped（用防气阀堵住） before they a
26、re poured out of chimneys. However, pollution problems have not been completely solved. Some factories are still using air as a dumping place for wastes. Some lakes are still dirty and the dirty water causes fishes to die. Quite a few chimneys are still pouring smoke into the air and noise pollution
27、 remains serious. All these problems are waiting to be solved.（文章通过列举法论证各段主题句。）,2. 好的段落主题句必须完整，即能表达一个完整的思想，该段落将围绕这一主题句逐步展开，或定义，或论述，或分类,或解释，或举例说明。因此，段落主题句中必须包含段落的主旨，必须包含一个等待发展的思想。 3. 一个好的段落主题句应该具有一定的限定性，它应该限定该段落的内容不至于偏离全文的中心内容， 而且，一个段落的容量是很有限的，如果主题句限定的范围太宽， 主题句的内容就无法在该段落内得以阐述清楚。,例如：Cheating on the Ca
28、mpus为题的作文, 用Cheating is popular, 或者Cheating is bad或者Cheating is understandable就过于笼统了, Cheating指的是什么? 即便是在大学校园里, cheating可以表现在考试, 爱情, 图书馆等各个方面, 不确定具体的范围, 主题句就形同虚设, 等于还是停留在题目上。因此, 一个好的主题句, 不仅要表达作者的态度, 还需要根据内容和字数方面的要求, 对题目的范围进行控制和确定。 例如: Cheating on the exam is popular on the campus today because of ac
29、ademic and professional pressures.,4. 主题句也不能太具体, 如果主题句太具体, 作者就无法在文字上加以展开。例如: American food is tasteless and greasy because Americans use too many canned, frozen, and prepackaged foods and because everything is fried in oil or butter. 上述句子作主题句显然不合适, 因为它讲述得太具体了, 最好应改为: American food is tasteless and g
30、reasy.,5. 我们在设计主题句时还应该注意不要把太多不相关的观点包括在一个主题句中， 否则，整个段落就会缺乏统一性。例如: Shanghai is famous for its temperate climate, its large population, and its rapid industrial development. 上句包括了三个方面的内容，难以在一个段落中同时讲述，因此，最好只是取其中之一，三个观点放在三个段落中论述。,6. 写主题句一般是将提示句翻译出来，但是如果要求句是英语就可以把它扩充成主题句。 例如这样的一篇作文： Good Health （1）Importa
31、nce of good health （2）Ways to keep fit （3）My own practice 这样的作文的要求句就可以扩展成主题句。扩展后三段的主题句分别为： It is very important to have good health. (将名词importance变成形容词important) There are four ways to keep fit for me.(用there be句型) My own practices are the following.（采用原词）,7. 已经给出主题句的就不要重抄一遍了,紧接着往下扩展。怎么扩展呢？请看例文： Th
32、e Game I Like Best The game I like best is playing football. As a school pupil, I used to play it with my classmates after school everyday. Now as a college student, I still play it whenever I can find time although I am busy with my studies. Furthermore, I never miss any important match shown on TV
33、. Sometimes, I get up even at the middle of the night in order to watch an international game. (描述法),Playing games requires both a good physical body and real skill. To begin with, to play football well, you should be very strong and have a lot of muscles. Then you should be skillful in tackling the
34、 ball, bringing it along, passing it to and catching it from others and, above all, scoring a goal. In short, it is physical strength and skill that make a good football player.（列举法）,Playing games brings me many benefits. First, it can train my mind and teach me to think quickly. Second, by playing
35、football, I learn to persevere when faced with difficulties. However, the most important benefit of all is that playing football can cultivate my spirit of teamwork. For all these reasons, I enjoy playing football very much.（列举法、转折法）,back,扩展方法,下面我们着重讲一讲常见的扩展方法： 第一种：列举法(Listing)。列举法是一种最为常见的段落发展方法, 用这
36、种方法发展段落, 首先要写出主题句, 然后列举一系列的论据对主题句所陈述的主题内容进行陈述和解释, 列举的顺序可以按照各点内容的相对重要性, 时间的先后或地理位置的远近等关系来进行。线索是： 主题句first扩展句second扩展句etc扩展句连接词结论句,例如:,(Topic sentence) Advertisement can be beneficial to people. (Argument 1)First, it is informative and can help people buy and sell goods. (Argument 2) Second, it can wi
37、den peoples knowledge, and make people more experienced. (Argument 3)Finally, people can enjoy themselves in watching those funny and interesting advertisement programs.,列举常用的表达方法有: A.三点法： 1) First Second Third 2) Firstly Secondly Thirdly Lastly (Finally) 3) First of all, to begin with; next, then,
38、besides, in addition, whats more, moreover, furthermore; most important of all, last but not the least, finally, eventually, etc B.两点法：用于较短的段落，只陈述两点。常用关联词语有： 1. For one thing, For another, 2. In the first place, In the second place, 3. On the one hand, On the other hand, ,第二种： 举例法(Exemplification)。为
39、了阐明或支持一个观点, 举例说明是一个常用而且有力的工具。在采用举例法发展段落时, 作者往往在主题句中开门见山地摆出自己的观点, 然后举出具体的事例来对其进行说明。所举的例子一般可按照时间顺序或重要性等来进行安排。关键在于各个实例都要于主题密切相关, 具有典型性和说服力, 或者能够不断地深入说明, 或反映主题各个侧面。 线索是：主题句for example扩展句for another扩展句连接词结论句,例如:,(The general point)Pollution is becoming more and more seriously all over the world. (example
40、 1) For example, the poisonous gas sent off by factories and automobiles has made the air unhealthy for people to breathe. (example 2) For another example, waste water keeps pouring into rivers and lakes; as a result, many water lives are dying out. (example 3) Furthermore, everywhere we go today, w
41、e can find rubbish carelessly disposed. (结论句)Pollution is, in fact, threatening our existence.,举例法常用的表达方法有: as an illustration, such as, namely, that is, like, say. 1) For example 2) For instance 3) Take for example（for instance） 4) To take / cite just one example, Mother love is great and selfless.
42、 To cite just one example, a thin and weak mother, as it was reported, financed her child through college by selling her blood.,5) is just a case in point相关的，适用的 6) can serve as an example 7) (Just) Consider/Look at sb., for example /instance, doing this, doing that, and doing 就拿某人来说为例吧, 他她做，做，做 8)
43、An interesting / striking / typical example of is provided by the story of sb. who 有个故事是说明 的有趣突出典型的例子：某人 ,应用：就拿孔繁森为例吧，他始终视人民的利益高于一切，他从不徇情枉法，他身体力行。他被视为清正廉洁的典范。,Consider Kong Fansen, for instance, always valuing the peoples interests above everything else, never bending the law for the benefit of his
44、relatives, and earnestly practicing what he advocates. He is seen as the mirror of honesty and uprightness.,Knowledge seeking and romance hunting can not go hand in hand. A striking example of the view is provided by the story of my former desk-mate who, once thought of as the most excellent student
45、 in my class, began to steer his boat of promise希望into the harbor of a girls love as early as when he was still in the junior middle school. Now he is drowning himself in deep-felt regret.,下一页,应用：,第三种：因果法(Cause and Effect)。 在人类的思维活动中, 人们常常会根据事物的原因推断其结果, 或者根据某一结果分析其原因。写作中的因果法正是这种思维方式在写作过程中的具体体现。所谓因果法
46、, 就是通过分析事物发生的原因,自然地说明由此而产生的各种结果, 或者通过分析某一结果, 推断导致这一结果的原因。 线索是：主题句first扩展句扩展句besides扩展句moreover扩展句连接词结论句,例如:,(The topic sentence) Nowadays there is often a misunderstanding between parents and child. (cause 1) The most obvious reason for this lack of communication is that they grew up at different ti
47、mes and therefore have different likes and dislikes for the things around them. (cause 2) Also the parent is often too busy to listen patiently to the explanation of the child when there is a misunderstanding. （结论句）Both of them take it for granted that there is a generation gap.,常用原因结果句型： 表示原因的表达方式有
48、： because of, because, as, for, owing to, due to, thanks to 表示结果的表达方式有： so, therefore, as a result, consequently, accordingly, for this reason,第四种：描写与叙述法(Description and Narration)。 段落还可以用描述与叙述的方法来发展。描写是指作者对某人、某物或事件的感觉和印象, 而叙述则指作者对某个故事和事件的讲述。描述和叙述一般按照时间和空间的次序, 而这种次序关系在很大程度上体现在它们所特有的过渡连接词上。用这种方法发展段落,
49、 作者能够清楚而连贯地交代事物的本末, 从而使读者可以清晰完整地理解文章的含义。,例如：,The first thing to do to make tea is to start boiling some water. While waiting for it to boil, you get your teapot ready, making sure to put the right amount of tea leaves into it. When the water has boiled, you pour it into the pot and bring the teapot and some cups to the guests. Everyone enjoys the conversation until the tea is cool