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1、Chapter 1,Introduction of Words,Some Interesting Facts,There is no egg in eggplant, nor ham in hamburger, Neither apple nor pine in pineapple And while no one knows what is a hotdog, you can be pretty sure it isnt canine（犬类） English muffins(=hot muffns热松饼，美式早餐/英式午茶糕点) were not invented in England，No
2、r French-fries in France，(炸薯条); 再如： French window 落地窗， take French leave 不辞而别， French grey 浅灰色,Sweetmeats(糖果)； sweetbreads(甜面包）？ In English we find that quicksand can work slowly, Boxing rings(拳击赛台)are square And why is that writers write, but fingers dont fing，grocers dont groce, and hammers dont h
3、am? If the plural of tooth is teeth, why isnt the plural of booth，beeth? One goose，two geese, So, one moose(驼鹿), two meese?(复数形式仍然是moose)；One mouse, two mice; One louse(虱子), two lice; One house? two hice? If teachers taught, why didnt preacher praught?(preached) If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what
4、 does a humanitarian eat? Why do people recite at a play, and play at a recital? Ship by truck or car and send cargo by ship?(动词与动词的功能差异；为什么演话剧时人们要朗诵，而在独奏会上却要演奏：polysemy) Have noses that run and feet that smell?,Park on driveways and drive on parkways? 美国的房子周围有driveway(入户的车道)：私人车道；parkway大路，干道) How
5、can a slim chance and a fat chance be the same, while a wise man and a wise guy are opposites? When a house burns up, it bums down.(方位稳喻) You fill in a form by filling it out. (collocation) And an alarm clock goes off by going on You get in and out of a car, yet you get on and off a bus. If there is
6、 a phrase of “gold bar”, then what does “gold brick” mean? And why, when I wind up my watch, I start it, But when 1 wind up this essay, I end it?（一词多义）,Lexicology as a part of linguistics,Lexicology is the part of linguistics, dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as
7、the main units of language. Vocabulary means the sum of all the words in the language. Good knowledge of the description of the vocabulary, rules of word-formation, origin and history of words helps to guess and remember the meaning of new-learned words, to master the standards of their usage, and t
8、o prevent mistakes. Two ways to study lexicology: 1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学 2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学,1. The definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentenc
9、e. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 词是语音、意义和语法特点三者统一的整体。词又是语句的基本结构单位。 (P.1) A fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a gi
10、ven syntactic function. 词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。辞海1984，上海辞书出版社,2. Sound and Meaning:,Introduction of Naturalist and Conventionalist The difference between the two schools lies in the belief that sound has or hasnt direct or necessary connection with meaning. The nationalists think the soun
11、d must be an echo of the sense.（音必须成为义的回声。）（p.2) The conventionalists hold that there is no intrinsic logical connection or relationship between the sound and the meaning except onomatopoeia （拟声词）, because: 1)代表同一意义的词在不同的语言（包括同一语言）中有时具有不同的语音外壳。(p.2),(1)His beloved friend has breathed his last(咽气了) (
12、2)His dear friend has passed away(与世长辞) (3)His close friend has died(死J，) (4)His old guy has kicked the bucket(翘辫子) (5)His old friend has abandon the worldjoin the choir invisiblego to Nirvanapay the debt of nature(谢世/归寂去极乐世界了结尘缘) 2)代表不同意义的词可以具有相同的语音外壳。(scale n. 鱼鳞，天平，标度；v.攀登) (p.2) 3)另外也需注意，代表同一意义的
13、词在不同的语言中有时具有近似的语音外壳。例如： 鸭叫：quack英；couin法；qua qua意；quak quak德 猫 meaw/miaow咪/喵；鸽子：coo-咕咕；牛：moo哞 狼：howl嚎,Onomatopoeia （拟声词） Definition: onomatopoeic words are echoic words whose sound reflects the sense. Gingle铃声铃 pat轻拍声轻拍 Ping-pong乒乓声乒乓球 Cuckoo布谷鸟叫声布谷鸟 Drum鼓声鼓 bomb爆炸声炸弹 Crash-轰隆声-猛撞,崩溃,破产,垮台 E.g. The
14、thunder crashed overhead. 雷声在头顶隆隆作响。 The boiling water cracked the glass. 滚烫的开水使玻璃杯炸裂了。 Onomatopoeia also exists in Chinese: 请帮我“咔嚓”一张。 两人都同时“哦”了一声。,3. Meaning & Concept,1) Realtionship between mening and concept Word concept referent（词是通过概念来反映客观事物或现象的） Polysemy（一词多义）可表示为：,word,Concept 1 Concept 2 C
15、oncept 3,Referent 1 Referent 2 Referent 3,Synonyms 可表示为： Word 1 + word 2 + word3 Concept Referent,Examples,Crane n. 1.一种长脖子鸟-鹤 2.一种形似鹤的机械-吊车 Glad, delight and happy是来自不同语源的同义词，属于同一个概念，指的是同一种情绪与状态。 Please compare the following: He is a father of two girls (daughters) Hie is over 30 now. Why not have
16、a girl (girlfriend)? Ill have a girl (maid) help you.,4. Lexical Item, Word & Vocabulary,1)词是构成词汇的基本要素。它们之间是个体与整体的关系； 2）词项是词典的组成单位，包含词的读音、词性、词义，语义特征和句法特征等；(P.4) 3）Development of English Vocabulary (1) - Old English (AD 450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 0
17、00 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German. (2) - Middle English (1150-1500) Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent
18、 of them are still in use today.,(3) - Modern English (1500-up to now) Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English. From the 16th century onward, English borrowed words from an increasing number of languages,
19、For example, from French: attach, caf and so on; Italian (mainly in the fields of music, art and architecture): concert, duet（二重奏）, piano, soprano（女高音）, solo, tenor（男高音）; model, bust（半身像）, studio; dome, balcony and so on;,Spanish: armada（无敌舰队）, cargo, vanilla, cocoa and cigar; Portuguese: caste（种姓）
20、and pagoda（塔）; German: bismuth（铋）, cobalt（钴）, nickel and zinc; Dutch: dock, freight and keel（平底船）; Russian: vodka, troika（三驾马车）, ruble and tsar（沙皇）; Australian: boomerang（自食其果）, kangaroo and dingo; Arabic: sugar, sultan（苏丹） and alcohol; Indian: coolie（苦力）, cashmere and khaki（卡其布）; Chinese: tea, typh
21、oon and yamen; Japanese: kimono （和服）and tycoon（大亨）; African: gorilla （大猩猩）and zebra（斑马）.,The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary (especially after the World War II) and its causes 1. Marked progress of science and technology: e.g. Words used in connection with the nuclear bomb: chain reac
22、tion, radioactivity, fall-out（辐射尘）; clean bomb, overkill, neutron bomb and medium-range ballistic missiles （中程弹道导弹）and so on. 2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changes: e.g. New social habits and new living conditions: credit card, house sitter, microwave oven, instant noodle, supermarket et
23、c. Drug addiction: upper (a stimulant drug), downer (a depressant drug) Some subculture: hippie, yuppie, gay, lesbian女同性恋 etc. Womens Liberation Movement: Ms, chairperson, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, malechauvinism, and sexism,3. The influence of other cultures and languages: e.g. discotheque
24、 from French, sputnik（斯波尼克人造卫星） from Russian, mao tai from Chinese and so on To sum up, the development of science, the rapid changes in society, the receptive（善于接受的） and flexible nature of English with regard to the influence of other cultures and languages-all these have resulted in a dramatic inc
25、rease in vocabulary, a growth which in turn contributes to the richness and resourcefulness of the English language.,Chapter II Morphological Structure of English Words & Word Formation,Part One Morphological Structure 1. Morphemes The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language,
26、 not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.(p.10) What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes: One morpheme-nation Two morphemes-nation-al Three morphemes-nation-al-ize Four morphemes-de-nation-al-ize（使非国有化） More than four morphemes-de-nation-al-
27、iz-ation,2. Free morphemes and bound morphemes A free morpheme自由形位(=实义形位） is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. A free morpheme is a word, in traditional sense. Man, faith, read, write, red are free morphemes. A bound morpheme粘附形位（=语法形位 =屈折形
28、位）cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound, for instance un- in unkind, -ly in happily and re- in receive, or the “past-tense” morpheme in words like work + ed and type + d, or the “plural” morpheme in words like dog + s and box +
29、 es. Inflectional elements and affixes are bound morphemes.,3. Allomorphs (形位变体，语词素变体） “An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned（受制约） by position or adjoining sounds” (Websters New World Dictionary of the American Language). E.g. the inflectional morpheme (屈折形位）(e)s of b
30、ooks, pigs, horses has the same meaning “more than one,” yet it has three different phonological forms: /-s, -z, iz/. The allomorphs ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix. Verbs ending with the sound /t/ usually take ion (as invent, invention); verbs ending with co
31、nsonants other than /t/, take tion (as in describe, description); verbs ending in ify and ize take ation (as in justify, justification; modernize, modernization); verbs ending in d, -de, or mit, take sion (as in expansion, decision, omission).,Allomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form then de
32、pends on the first letter of the word to which they will be added. A prefix like im- occurs before p, b, or m (e.g. imperfect, imbalance, immobile); its allomorphs are ir- before r (e.g. irresponsible); il- before l (e.g. illogical); in- before all other consonants and vowels (e.g. inflexible, inexc
33、usable); im-, ir- and il- are thus allomorphs of the morpheme in-.,4. Roots and affixes Alternatively, morphemes may be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). 1） Roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning o
34、f the word. E.g. work, workable, worker, worked, and working: in each word the root is work,(a) Free roots: In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black (i.e. they can stand alone as words). A word consisting of one free root (or one morpheme) is a simple word. (b) Bound
35、 roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, especially from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes, such as tain（包括 ten, tin= hold，表示“拿住” ）in words like contain（con 全部+tain全部拿住包容） detain, （de 下+tain拿住，拿下拘留） sustain （sus 下面+tain在下面拿住撑住 , or retain （re 回+tain拿回来保留） ,
36、 and ceive in conceive, deceive or receive. So bound roots are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own.,5. Affixes: Affix is a “collective term for type of formative（构词要素） that can be used only when added to another morpheme.” Affixes, therefore, are considered bound
37、 morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional and derivational types. (a) Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) （屈折词缀或屈折词素） : An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexi
38、cal meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. Inflectional affixes have only their particular grammatical meaning, as with the plural morpheme s and the past morpheme ed (or their variants). They can only be affixed to words of th
39、e same word class; that is, the plural morphemes are affixed to nouns only, and ed to verbs only.,(b) Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)（派生词缀或派生形位）: They are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they “derive” a new word. A few examples of derivational affixes are:
40、 re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, mean+ness, work+er. Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning, for instance: -ism means “doctrine or point of view” as in socialism. Quite a number of other derivational affixes have more than one meaning. e.g.: the affix de- means “1. t
41、o undo what has been done, to reverse the action of: decentralize, decode 2. to remove: debone 3. to reduce: devalue 4. (esp. in grammar) coming from something else: a deverbal noun（从动词派生出来的名词）.,6. prefixes and suffixes 1）Derivational morphemes or derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into pr
42、efixes and suffixes. Affixes before the word are called prefixes (as in supermarket); those after are called suffixes (as in friendship). 2）Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to: （1）. Their linguistic origin: A. Native affixes are those that existed in the OE period or were formed f
43、rom OE words, such as un-, mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and er.,B. Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from Latin, Greek, French, or other languages. Examples: ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk), mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk), -ist(Gk), -able (F), and ize
44、(F). （2）. Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words. 3） Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive. Examples of dead affixes are: for- as in forget, forgive and forbid; with
45、- as in withdraw, withhold and withstand, and ant or ent as in servant, different, etc.,Summary: 1.Words are composed of morphemes. A morpheme, the minimal meaningful unit of the English language, possesses both sound and meaning. An allomorph is any of variant forms of a morpheme. 2. Morphemes may
46、be classified as free or bound. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself as a complete utterance, while a bound morpheme cannot exist on its own; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.,3. Morphemes can also be classified into roots and affixes. A root carries the main
47、 component of meaning in a word. Roots can be free or bound morphemes. Free roots can stand alone as words and provide the language with a basis for the formation of new words. Bound roots cannot appear as words in modern English, although they were once words, nor can they be used to form new words
48、.,4. Affixes are bound morphemes, because they are used only when added to other morphemes. Affixes are classified into inflectional and derivational affixes. The former are related to grammar only. Derivational affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes, which are related to the formation of
49、 new words. Roots, prefixes and suffixes are the building blocks with which words are formed. 5. On morphemic level, words can be classified into simple, complex and compound words, according to the number and type of morphemes they are composed of.,6. Morphemes are important in the word-building process because the two most central and productive word-formation process, compounding and affixation, are related to morphemes: the former is a combination of free morphemes, the