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1、Lecture 4 The units of English,Describe the following sounds:,/f/ /i/ /:/,Review,f: voiceless, labia-dental, (oral), fricative /i/: high, front, lax, short, unrounded /:/: mid, central, tense, long, unrounded,Major contents,4.1 English morphemes 4.2 English words 4.3 English clauses and sentences 4.
2、4 Collocations, idioms, and constructions in English,Morphology 形态学 is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. Morphology falls into two categories: inflectional morphology (study of inflections) lexical/derivational morphology (study of wo
3、rd formation).,4.1 English morphemes,The morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning, lexical or grammatical. Ask: How many morphemes does the following word contain? weaknesses,Morphemic analysis,Practice:,Analyze the word: unwomanliness,Classification:,free/bound morpheme e.g. weak/ness derivational/
4、inflectional morpheme (lexical meaning) (grammatical meaning) e.g. weak/ness-es root/affix morpheme e.g. weak/ness,Task,What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases? (a) the governments policies (b) the latest news (c) two frightened cows,Root, affix,Root: the part expressing the bas
5、ic meaning of a word. It can be free or bound. c.f. brotherlyreceive Affix morphemes: prefix; infix; suffix Example of infix: foot-feet goose-geese BUT: It s controversial.,Discuss P. 53 No. 1, 2,Compound,A word composed of two or more free root morphemes is a compound. c.f. bookcase - friendship,Al
6、lomorph,A set of allomorphs, e.g. in-, im-, il- ir-, are the variants (different realizations) of a morpheme, in- in this case. They have the same meaning and are in complementary distribution. For the morpheme of “plural meaning“ in English: map-maps /s/, dog-dogs /z/, watch-watches /iz/, mouse-mic
7、e /ai/, ox-oxen /n/, tooth-teeth /i:/, sheep-sheep /,Root and stem,The stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be attached. e.g. lived, shortened, weaknesses, landlords A stem-formative is the morpheme that serves to create stems. e.g. biology, thermometer,Discuss PP.
8、53-54 No. 3,4.2 English words,Presentation session Word formation in English,Practice: Point out the devices of word formation for each of the following: smog, enthuse, tec, PLO, hospitalize, plane (v.) nylon,Syntactic units,Hierarchical system: (morpheme-)word-phrase-clausesentence e.g. I met Tom.
9、a (handsome American young) man a (handsome American young) man who always spoke a very heavy dialect.,Classification of English words grammatical words (function words/form words/ functors) lexical words,Practice: Identify those that are function words and those that are lexical words in the follow
10、ing short paragraph. Whats the percentage of function words?,What does it mean to be fat? And, moreover, what does it mean to be a woman who is fat? In the United States, the word “fat” is not merely descriptive; it has a negative connotation. Women are pressured to be thin and young looking at ever
11、y age, and those who do not fit this definition of normal, are, for the most part, marginalized. (67 words),closed-class words - open-class words New members of word class: particles: pass by; make up; to do; not auxiliaries: I dont do it; is he coming? he has gone. pro-forms: Your pen is here (pro-
12、adjective); He knows better than I do (pro-verb); I hope so(pro-ad); Hes here, behind the tree. (pro-locative),English phrases,Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses. e.g. (1) a traditional festival (2) fr
13、eezing cold (3) in the next century,4.3 English clauses and sentences,A clause in English is one unit of organization that contains a subject-predication structure. A simple sentence is a clause. Alternatively: A clause is a group of words that has its own subject and predicate but is included in a
14、sentence. e.g. (1) I want to know why. (2) Having an influential father is often advantageous. (3) Do you know where I come from?,A clause may be finite or non-finite. In the latter case, the subject of the predicate is implicit but inferable from the sentence containing the clause, such as an infin
15、ite clause, a ing or ed participle clause. superordinate/main/matrix clause subordinate clause,English sentences,a. Definition: Semantically, the minimal form that expresses a complete thought Formally, not included in any larger linguistic form,Classification,Discuss,PP. 56-57 No. 7,4.4 Collocation
16、s, idioms, chunks, and constructions,Some phrases, for various reasons, are more or less tight collocations (like “a handsome car”, “a pretty girl”) or closed idioms (like “in the end” and “leave off”).,Idioms generally have semantic unity and function as noun, verb, adjective and so forth. Idioms d
17、iffer from compound words in that they, for the most part, allow a certain amount of internal modification. The nominal idiom “man-of-war”, for example, pluralizes as “men-of-war”, instead of “man-of-wars”.,Verb-particle idioms have become extremely common in English during the last three centuries
18、or so. Such constructions are more common in American English than in British English. Those consisting of three rather than two parts, like “miss out on” and “meet up with”, are almost exclusively American in origin.,Discuss: PP. 59-60 No. 6,A very large part of language is made up of prefabricated
19、 chunks, or ready-made expressions, phraseological units which do not have to be generated every time they are used. “for example”, “think of”, “on the whole” are such chunks. Native speakers retain many prefabricated lexical items in their memory. PP. 55-56 No. 6,Chunks in English,Constructions,Rat
20、her than treating sentences as uniformly formed by virtue of generative rules, a new perspective known as construction grammar argues that there is no principled divide between lexicon and rules and language is a repertoire of more or less complex patterns constructions that integrate form and meani
21、ng in conventionalized and often non-compositional ways. Form in constructions may refer to any combination of syntactic, morphological, or prosodic patterns and meaning is understood in a broad sense that includes lexical semantics, pragmatics, and discourse structure (to be expounded later).,a. Ja
22、ne gave John an apple. (ditransitive construction) b. Jane gave an apple to John. (dative construction) c. It was Jane that John saw. (It-cleft construction) d. Jane, John saw her. (left dislocation construction) e. Jane John saw. (topicalization construction) f. Jane kissed John unconscious. (resul
23、tative construction),Assignment:,PP. 60-61 No. 9 Explore whether there are parallel word formation devices in Chinese. Use examples to illustrate.,Lecture 5,The Structures of English (1),Contents,5.1 Defining syntax （句法学） 5.2 Syntactic patterns in English 5.3 Syntactic relations 5.4 The hierarchical
24、 structuring of English sentences 5.5 Surface and deep structures,5.1 Defining syntax,Syntax is the study of how words combine into sentences; specifically the syntactic patterns of sentences /internal structures of sentences /syntactic properties and functions, and the rules governing the syntactic
25、 combinations.,Syntax accounts for: - the grammaticality of sentences; - word order; - hierarchical organization of sentences; - grammatical relations - whether different structures have different meanings or the same meaning; - the creative aspect of language.,The boy found the ball. *The boy found
26、 quickly. *The boy found in the house. Bill hired Mary. Mary hired bill. Mary was hired by Bill. He has everything a woman wants, - and he wants everything a woman has.,Recursiveness/ Recursion PP. 74-75 No. 1,A childrens rhyme This is the farmer sowing the corn, that kept the cock that crowed in th
27、e morn, that waked the priest all shaven and shorn, that married the man all tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built.,5.
28、2 Sentence patterns/types in English,i) SVC Mary is a nurse/poor. ii) SVA Mary weighs 120 pounds. iii) SV Mary came. iv) SVO Mary cheated me. v) SVOC Mary called me Jim. vi) SVOA Mary put her child down. vii) SVOO Mary lend him some money.,Language types,SVO: English, French, Swahili, Hausa, Thai VS
29、O: Tagalog, Irish, (Classical) Arabic, (Biblical) Hebrew SOV: Turkish, Japanese, Persian, Georgian OVS: Apalai (Brazil), Barasano (Colombia), Panare (Venezuela) OSV: Apurina and Xavante (Brazil) VOS: Cakchiquel (Guatemala), Huave (Mexico),The most frequent word orders in languages of the world are S
30、VO, VSO, and SOV, while languages with OVS, OSV, and VOS as basic word orders are much rarer.,P. 78 No. 8,5.3 Syntactic relations,Positional relation (word order, horizontal relations, syntagmatic relations-Hjemslev; chain relations-Halliday),Syntagmatic relation refers to the sequential or linear a
31、rrangement of words in a language. Any language has its patterns of arrangement. Word order determines syntactic relations and sentence meaning, esp. for those analytical languages like Chinese.,Relation of substitutability (associative relations-Saussure; paradigmatic relations-Hjemslev; vertical r
32、elations; choice relations-Halliday) (1) He is fond of dancing/swimming/his pretty cousin/literature, etc. (2) He left yesterday/at midnight/before he had finished his homework/ the moment I arrived.,5.4 The hierarchical structuring of English,Sentences are not strings of words put together linearly
33、 but rather hierarchical constructions. e.g. young boys and girls,IC analysis,Form classes Form classes: phonetic and grammatical features (distribution, grammatical function, inflectional features),John likes singing Chinese songs. John likes? likes singing? singing Chinese? BUT: likes (singing (Ch
34、inese songs) John (likes (singing (Chinese songs),IC analysis,Some concepts,1) Binary cutting 2) Immediate constituent/ ultimate constituent 3) Tree diagram/ labeled tree diagram 4) IC analysis: the approach to analyze sentences into immediate constituents by binary cuttings until obtaining the ulti
35、mate constituents,Labeled tree-diagram,Practice: Apply IC analysis onto the following sentence: The world today is highly competitive.,Ambiguity,PP. 75-76 No. 2, 3,Two ways of IC analysis,Eye drops off shelf,Eye drops off shelf,Eye,drops off shelf,drops,off shelf,off,shelf,Eye drops,off shelf,Eye,dr
36、ops,off,shelf,But IC analysis cannot - remove the ambiguity as found in Flying planes can be dangerous.,- explain why structures like the following look similar but basically different: a. He is easy to please. b. He is eager to please.,P. 77 No. 6,e.g. He is easy to please. He is eager to please.,5
37、.5 Surface and deep structures,Analysis in terms of Chomskys TG grammar,Presentation session,Interrogative sentences in English,Assignments:,P. 80 No. 2, 3 P. 81 No. 6 Collect at least two cases of ambiguity from newspaper headlines, advertisements, etc.,Lecture 6,The Structures of English (2),Revie
38、w:,What is meant by IC analysis? What are surface structure and deep structure? Analyze how the following sentence is ambiguous: Flying planes can be dangerous.,IC analysis,Flying planes can be dangerous,flying planes,can be dangerous,flying,planes,can be,dangerous,can,be,Labeled tree diagram,S,NP,V
39、P,AdjPc ?,N,flying,planes,VP,Adj,AUX,V,can,be,dangerous,Deep Structure 1,Flying planes can be dangerous,can be dangerous,NP,VP,AdjP,N,flying,planes,Deep Structure 2,can be dangerous,NP,VP,S,N,flying,planes,NP,VP,S,Aux,V,(are),Contents,6.1 English paragraphs 6.2 English texts 6.3 Cohesion in English
40、texts 6.4 Turn taking in English conversations,6.1 English paragraphs,PP. 87-88,6.2 English texts,P. 88 Discuss PP. 90-91 No. 2,6.3 Cohesion in English texts,Sentence connection a. Conjoining (coordination) b. Embedding (subordination),Means of cohesion(衔接）: a. Lexically ( repetition, synonymy, anto
41、nymy, hyponymy-reiteration) b. Grammatically (ellipsis, substitution, reference) c. Logically (connectives),A latest survey has been held among some citizens from Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou about the Internets influence on peoples habit of reading. The research shows that 40% of them have stron
42、g belief that it will replace the book as the sole source of information, but the remaining 60% argue that the Internet will coexist with the traditional means of information transmission. I agree with the latter.,Identify the cohesive devices in the following passage:,Discuss,P. 93 No. 6,Reference
43、deserves further elaboration here. The first distinction can be drawn between endophoric reference and exophoric reference. While the former points to a relation between an entity in the situational context and a linguistic item in the text (as in “He is the man you want to see!” said when the menti
44、oned person comes over to the speaker), the latter refers to the relation between two linguistic items in the same text.,For endophoric reference, further distinction is attempted between anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference. The former involves a relation between a preceding referential exp
45、ression or an antecedent and the current pronominal item (as in “John loves Jane. He takes great care of her. This is known to all.”) , whereas the latter denotes a relation between the current pronominal item and the later occurring expression (as in “This is what John does for Jane: he sends a bun
46、ch of roses to her every day.”) .,Discuss,P. 90 No. 1,6.4 Turn taking in English conversations,In conversation, dialogue rather than monologue dominates. Conversationalists take turns speaking. The chance to speak is technically termed as floor. The current speaker may try to maintain the floor, or
47、give up the floor. While the next speaker may opt to interrupt in order to seize the floor, he or she can wait to be nominated by the current speaker, or take the hints from him such as a long pause, a gesture, a gaze, etc.,An initiation, say a question or a request, by the first speaker and the res
48、ponse by the second speaker, like an answer to the question and a compliance with the request, form an adjacency pair. If the second part of the adjacency pair is positive, it is preferred; if the second part of the adjacency pair is negative, it is dispreferred. The latter is characterized by the use of such signals as “well”, hesitation markers like “erm”, pauses, explanations or accounts, etc.,Discuss PP. 91-92 No. 3, 4,Presentation session,Phatic communion in English and Chinese,Assignments:,P. 95 No. 9 P. 98 No. 5,