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1、An Introduction to Linguistics 语言学导论 陈林华,Chapter One Linguistics Definition Linguistics differs from other sciences in that it both uses languages as the tool and takes languages as its object to study. 3.Philology Linguistics (语文学） （语言学）,In the mid of 19th F.De Saussure (the founder of general ling
2、uistics）,4. Linguistic study (1) diachronic study 历时性学习 Study the development of language in the course of time. 研究语言在不同时期的特点。 (2) synchronic study 共时性学习 Study linguistics at a particular point of time (given linguistic status or stage of a particular language) 研究语言在同一时期的不同阶段。, linguistic study: pri
3、mary synchronic study 研究语言难在： language is always changing people in the same speech community do not say the same language features of a language, cant be replaced quickly and completely.,5. Langue Parole langue 语言 parole 言语 ,a set of rules or conventions an abstract linguistic system in every speak
4、ers mind not actually spoken e. relatively stable,Actual spoken Specific (concrete) situational the use of the rules or conventions, Parole is the realization of the langue,6. Language competence language performance LAD innate (capacity/intuitive to acquire language) experience Grammar (for a parti
5、cular language) competence performance isnt innate,working like a machine,As. Material product, competence (Grammar) is equal to everybody ideal knowledge of language user performance isnt equal to everybody influenced by psychological and social factors. Performance is the realization of the knowle
6、dge Knowledge is the essence of the competence Behavior is the essence of the performance Communicative Competence-Hymes,7. prescriptivism & descriptivism Prescriptivism:,Set down a kind of form, admit one dialect or variety is more superior than another. Form grammar, pronunciation, lexicon. Regula
7、te people how to actually use language. How things should be. Language police,Descriptivism:,Language is live, changing. If one of language is expressive, logical, then it is a good language. b) observer/ recorder/ of language how things actually be/ what people actually say.,Chapter Two Language De
8、finition of language : a set of rules (eg. Syntactic rules),A well-organized system,of,arbitrary,vocal,symbols,Used for human communication,: there is no logical and intrinsic connection between objects and symbols.,: the sound, spoken language, most important medium.,: people use it to represent ob
9、jects, ideas, opinions or actions.,: human specific (人类特有 ）,2. Design features of language Arbitrariness Productivity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission Transferability Linearity interchangeability,3. Social functions of language Communicative means (the most important one) The means for con
10、ceptual thinking and recognition of the world. (3) The vehicle and transmitter of culture. language is cultural-dependant language mirrors culture,4. Functions of language in communication Phatic Directive function Informative function Expressive function Interrogative function Evocative function Pe
11、rformative function,Chapter Three Phonetics: sound of language,Definition of phonetics: The scientific study of speech sounds, which are used by all human languages or by a particular language to represent meanings. Branches: (1) articulatory phonetics (发音（声）语音学) ：The study of the production of the
12、sound. (2) accustic phonetics (声学语音学）：concerned with physical properties of these sounds.,(3) Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学）:concerned with the reception/ perception of the hearer. 3. International Phonetics Association (IPA) International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA) 国际音标 （1） nasalized 鼻音化 元音 （2） velarized
13、 软腭化 （3） devoiced 轻（弱）音化 （4） dentalized 齿音化 （5） asparated 吐气音,Labials /p/ /b/ /m/ Labiodentals /f/ /v/ Alveolars /d/ /t/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /r/ /l/ Velars /g/ /k/ / Interdentals / / Palatals /h/ /?/ Labiovelars /w/ /M/,Vowels approximants(延续音） non-continuants continuants = = glides liquids stops/plosive af
14、fricates fricatives w/M l = t s f j r nasal oral d z v h m p k t n b g d sibilants (hissing) sonorants obstruents (阻塞音） (voiced)响声,Palatal Voiced fricative,z alveolar voiced fricative,f fricative voiceless obstruent labiodentals,w glide approximant sonorant voiced labiovelars,Vowels The height of th
15、e tongue high vowels, mid vowels, low vowels The position of the tongue front vowels, central vowels, back vowels lip-rounding unrounded vowels, rounded vowels Tenseness of the tongue tense vowels, lax vowels,Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ou/ /:/ / / Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /i/ /e/ /ei/ / /:/ / / Tense v
16、owels: /i:/ /u:/ /ei/ /ou/ /a:/ /:/ /:/ Lax vowels: /i/ /u/ /e/ / / / / / /,Chapter Four Phonology 1. Definition: the science or the scientific study of the system and the patterns of the speech sounds of languages. 2. Phonetics(语音学）：how the sounds produced, transmitted, received. 3. Phonemes(音位）：sp
17、eech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are called phonems.,Phone: (音素）a phone is a phonetic unit or segment in the phonetically realization of a phoneme. ph 2 versions of one phoneme /p/ Phones 2 realization of one phoneme p= The number of allophones (音位变体）is
18、 limited. Allophones: The different phones which represent or derive from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme.,一个音位的不同变化形式 音位变体 每一个可以读出的音叫做音素。 一个音如果没有读出叫做音位。 4. Phonetic representation 语音表达 phonemic representation 音位表达 Phonetic representation：of utterances shows what the speakers k
19、now about the pronunciation of utterances. Phonemic representation: of the utterances shows what the Speakers know about the abstract or underlying phonemic representation of words.,5. Minimal pair: when two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme which occurs in the same p
20、lace, they are said to form a minimal pair. 6. Phonemic feature: （distinctive feature) 区分特征 when two words are phonetically identical except for one feature, the phonetic differences is distinctive, as this difference alone can account for the meaning contrast. 7. Free variations: the different pron
21、unciations of one word are called free variations.,8. Complementary distribution: when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. 9. Syllables (音节）:a syllable is the smallest structured sound unit made up o
22、f a rule-governed sequence of phonemes. peak 音节峰 peak Syllable onset 节前辅音 kn coda 音节尾 onset coda,/m/ /n/ /l/ /r/ can be peak phonological rules: The rules that determine the occurrence of phonemes in particular language. distinctive feature: (phonemic feature) 区分特征（音位特征） suprasegmental features: pit
23、ch 音调 falling tone ( 超切分的音位特征） intonation语调 rising tone （suprasegmental stress重音 fall-rise tone phonemes) length音长 rise-fall tone pause停顿 juncture音渡，连音,10. Phonological rule 音位规则 (1) aspiration rule 吐气规则 (2) Assimilation rule 同化规则 (3) Devoicing rule 轻音化规则 (4) Dentalization rule 齿音化规则 (5) Nasalizatio
24、n rule 鼻音化规则 (6) Homorganic nasal rule 同部位鼻音规则 (7) Deletion rule 省略规则 (8) Vowel schwa rule 非重读元音规则 (9) Metathesis rule 移位规则 （11）dissimilation rule (10) Epenthesis rule 插音规则 异化规则,11. Formalization of phonological rules to become in the environment of features - before - after a sound # word final / w
25、ord initial,/p/ +consonant +alveolar /k/ -voiced /s/ +fricative /t/ +stop +consonantal -vocalic +sibilant -vocalic +voiced,Nasalization rule: a vowel is nasalized when it appears before a nasal. 2. Aspiration rule: /p/ /k/ /t/ appears at the beginning of a word and before a stressed vowel. 3. Unaspi
26、ration rule: /p/ /k/ /t/ appears after /s/ and before a stressed vowel. 4. Devoicing rule: nasals and liquids when occurring after voiceless consonants, may become devoiced. 5. Dentalization rule 6. Vowel schwa rule 7. Deletion rule,Chapter Five Morphology 1. word: is the smallest meaningful unit wh
27、ich can be used independently. (1) physically definable unit. (between two pauses) the common factor underlying a set of form a grammatical unit 词汇的语法单位 sentence clause phrase word morpheme,(2) Features of words stability relative uninterruptability minimal free form (3) Classification of words open
28、 class: whose membership is not limited, fixed, can be regularly expanded. Eg. Nouns, verbs, adjectives. closed class: they cant easily expand their new membership. eg. Conj, pron. Num, articles,Variable words: ordered and regular series of grammatical forms. Eg. study-studying-studied-studies Invar
29、iable words: those which have no inflective endings. eg. Seldom/ always/ often grammatical words (function words) 虚词：express grammatical meanings. Eg. Conj, pron, prep lexial words (content words) 实词：express lexical meanings. Eg. Nouns, verbs, adj.,adv.,(4) Word class new classes particles 小品词，助词 to
30、-infinitive marker 不定式符号 not-negative marker 否定符号 subordinate: unit of a verbal phrase. Eg. Go on auxiliaries 助动词 will, do, have, had a) inversion form b) negative form Auxiliaries are different from verb Eg. Will -will not verb dont, proform 代词形式，替代形式 pro-adjectives 代形容词，pro-verb, pro-adverb, pro-l
31、ocative 代方位词 eg. My shoes is black, so is hers. He studies better than I do. He hopes the exam will be canceled, I hope so. The broom is there, in the corner. Proform: a word can take the place of certain words., determiners 限定词 pre-determiners 前限定词：all, both, half, twice, 3 times central-determiner
32、s 中限定词：a, the, this, that, these, those post-determiners 后限定词：ordinal numerals, 序列词 general ordinals序数词. Determiners: refers to the words which can be used to modify the head noun of a noun phrase.,2. Morphology Definition Morpheme: is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit. Morph: each of the phon
33、etic forms or variants is a morph. allomorph 1. in complementary distribution features 2. have the same/common meaning 3. occur in parallel formation hold the same position,Types of morpheme Free morpheme (root) 自由语素：usually carries the basical meaning, can stand by itself as a word. Bound morpheme
34、(affix)黏着语素：it always be a part of a word. Root 词根 Free root morpheme: root that can be used freely, stand by itself. Bound root morpheme: can carry some meaning, but cant be used freely.,Free and bound root morpheme: can be used both. Affix: prefix infix suffix Inflectional affix/morpheme: just sho
35、w grammatical meaning. eg. Teachers learning Derivational affix/morpheme: is an affix which is used to form a derivative. eg. remarry,3. Word formation Stem eg. Friendships root suffix stem distempered root suffix stem Monomorphenic 单语素中 stem=root eg: sang,stem is the part that is left after removed
36、 all the inflectional morphemes. root is the part which is left after all the affixes are removed inflectional affixes derivational affixes (2) Ways of word formation Derivation 派生法（衍生法）：is a way to add affixes to bases to form new words. prefix derivative 衍生词 infix eg. understand-understandable suf
37、fix happy-unhappy,Word class unchanged un- happy-unhappy dis- like-dislike b) Word class changed verb-noun n-verb -er / -or/ -ize /-fy compounding Compounds made up of same category n + n - bookstore adj. + adj. - white-hot red-hot prep. + prep. - into within onto upon b) Compounds made up of differ
38、ent category,Part of speech of the compound falls to the 2nd element. eg. Scarecrow 稻草人 n. v. n. Part of speech of the compound falls to 1st element. eg. Brother-in law passer-by looker-on c) The grammatical relationship between the elements of a compound. 1. coordinative 并列的 bookstore, deaf-mute, c
39、lassroom 2. qualifier-head 偏正的 reading-room, snow-white 3. subject-predicate 主谓的 man-made, sunrise, spoon-feed 4. verb + object 动宾的 callgirl, playboy,d) Spelling of compounds 1. there is no space. Eg. Football 2. there is a hyphen. Eg. Snow-white 3. there is a space. Eg. Red-light district meaning o
40、f the compounds isnt the sum of the meaning of all the elements. Eg. red-meat 牛肉，羊肉 white-lie 善意的谎言 Red-cap 空宪兵 blue-stocking 清高女子 Blue-blood 贵族血统 white elephant 大而不实用东西 Jack Robinson 平常人, conversion: is the way in which we get new words by changing their parts of speech. abbreviation (shortening of
41、 clipping) : is the way to make a word shortened or clipped. 1. cut the final part. Eg. Photo-photograph 2. cut the initial part 3. cut both the initial and the final part eg. Influenza-flu refrigerator-fridge Back formation eg. To burgle (from burglar) to beg (from beggar) to edit (from editor) to
42、laze (from lazy), sentence-condensation eg. Touch-me-not stay-at-home forget-me-not blending 1. initial part of 1st + final part of 2nd eg. Motel, smog, botle 2. initial part of two words eg. Digicom digital computer telex teleprinter exchanger onomatopoeia: is the way to form new words by imitating
43、 natural sounds. (imitation & root-creation), reduplication: refers to the formation of words by reduplicating or repeating sounds. eg. Humpty-dumpty 矮胖的 criss-cross 杂乱的 Acronymization 1. alphabetisms eg. UN 2. words pronounced as common words eg. Laser (lightwave amplification by stimulated emissio
44、n of radiation) 11. Analogical form co-existence of regular and irregular form (for verbs),Chapter six syntax: structure of sentences Syntax: is a part of the grammar of a language, dealing with the structures of sentences and the rules governing them. Paradigmatic rules: refers to the relationships
45、 that hold among sets of intersubstitutable linguistic elements at a particular place in s structure. Parts of speech/ word class/ form class a) words belong to the same parts of speech have some differences. b) one word can belong to different parts of speech.,(2) How to judge parts of speech a) ac
46、cord to meaning b) distribution position in a sentence c) inflection (3) Grammatical category: grammatical meanings can be classified into different categories, called grammatical categories. In other words, a grammatical category is the classification of grammatical meanings. The commonly found grammatical categories are person, number, gender case, tense, aspect, voice, mood and so on.,Person the first person, the second person, the third person the dis