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1、TPO16Passage1-+ TPO16Passage1- Trade and the Ancient Middle East Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times, partly due to the geology o
2、f the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan,
3、and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and A
4、rabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems. Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop
5、 owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bou
6、nd to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essent
7、ially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily fr
8、om international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small- scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flouris
9、hed in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power. The mercantile econ
10、omy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by tradean attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in
11、 a mercantile economy with little regulation, where ones word is ones bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic
12、 of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of ones fellows, and entrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pasturesan act of self-assertion wh
13、olly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history. Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile,
14、since the development of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gamas voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology o
15、f the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious. Paragraph 1: Trade was the mainst
16、ay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times, partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic or
17、e and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such
18、 expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well
19、as for metals and gems. TPO16Passage1 1. According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas. Growing conditions throughout the
20、 Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain. Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions. Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created man
21、y opportunities for trade with neighboring societies. Paragraph 2: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank
22、 were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that
23、 either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. 2. The word repudiate in the passage is closest in meaning to respect reject review revise 3. According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers? Workers were ranked according to
24、 their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop. Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters. Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the ter
25、ms of their partnership. The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family. Paragraph 3: This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These we
26、re essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted pri
27、marily from international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small- scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production tha
28、t flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power. 4. The aut
29、hor includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading in order to support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds w very good for trade contrast the economic base of the city governmen
30、t with that of the tribal confederacies provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds 5. According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craft guilds E
31、XCEPT: The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high- quality craft production. Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area. The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote. All guild members were treated as equals. 6. The word cons
32、ensus in the passage is closest in meaning to authority responsibility custom agreement Paragraph 4: The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by tradean attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circ
33、umstances. As among tribes people, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where ones word is ones bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and
34、artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of ones fellows, and entrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants a
35、nd artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pasturesan act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history. 7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was NOT necessary for success in the mercantile economy? Good b
36、usiness sense Reliable associates Family wealth Constant effort 8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. Tribes people were comfortable
37、forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another. Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally. While trade among merchants relied somew
38、hat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation. Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character. 9. The word ethic in the passage is
39、closest in meaning to set of moral principles division of labor economic system test of character 10. According to paragraph 4, what choice did Middle Eastern merchants and artisans have that many other people have not had? If they were unhappy in the mercantile environment, they could draw on perso
40、nal connections to find a different kind of work. They were allowed to assert their opinions without having to listen to aristocratic professions of moral superiority. Following the example of the pastoralists, they could demand, and receive, better working conditions. If they didnt like their envir
41、onment, they could move somewhere else. Paragraph 5: Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the d
42、evelopment of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gamas voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of the regio
43、n also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious. 11. The word intrinsically in the passage is
44、 closest in meaning to fundamentally surprisingly consequently particularly 12.In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the new trade route opened up by Vasco da Gamas fifteenth century voyage around Africa? To provide evidence that European seafarers took every opportunity to bypass Middle Easte
45、rn merchants To present an instance in which Middle Eastern states lost money and power because of their reliance on long-distance trade To argue this new route became necessary when European seafarers wanted to avoid Middle Eastern states whose central power had begun to erode To explain how da Gam
46、a helped European traders avoid the dangerous predators prowling the areas surrounding Middle Eastern cities Paragraph2: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was a
47、lso the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The wo
48、rker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. 13. Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. For one thing, it created a demand for finished goods to be sold both loc