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1、 R racial segregation: USA The practice of separating the races (specifically, the barring of blacks from social interaction with whites) dominated American racial relations from the late-19th to the mid-20th century. After the abolition of slavery in 1865, white Americans became increasingly concer
2、ned about how to monitor and control a newly freed black population. Paranoid rumors spread among white Southerners that emancipated blacks would attempt to take violent retribution against their former masters, including the rape of white women and the theft of white property (themes dramatized in
3、D.W.Griffiths The Birth of a Nation, 1915). In a vehement backlash against Reconstructionthe federal program designed to reorganize the civic and economic life of the post-Civil War Southwhite Southerners blocked efforts to bring about the social equality of the races. Beginning in the 1870s, and pa
4、rticularly during the 1890s, Southern state legislatures enforced the segregation of public accommodations (e.g., trains, hotels, theaters, restaurants, schools), prohibited interracial marriage, and revoked black voting rights. Yet segregation was not limited to the South; in many Northern states b
5、lacks were denied access to places of employment and amusement. As the 19th century drew to a close, white supremacists worked to draw and redraw the “color line,” while blacks expressed an increasing unwillingness to accept circumscription and second-class citizenship. In 1891, a group of blacks in
6、 New Orleans organized to challenge the constitutionality of a Louisiana law mandating “equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races” on passenger trains. The Supreme Court responded on May 18, 1896 with its (in)famous Plessy v. Ferguson decision, allowing states to maintain sep
7、arate (and, many argued, patently unequal) social arrangements along racial lines. Throughout the following decades, civil rights groups such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in 1909, worked to dismantle “Jim Crow” segregation. Jim Crow, a popular bl
8、ackface caricature from the 19th-century minstrel stage, became a widely used metaphor for segregationist practices (e.g., the Jim Crow car of a train or balcony of a theater). In many parts of the North, where segregation was not enforceable by law (de jure), it was common in practice (de facto). D
9、uring the early 20th century, numerous thriving African American communities developed under segregation. Among them, New Yorks Harlem and Chicagos South Encyclopedia of early cinema 788 Side “Black Belt” flourished as centers for black business, religious, entertainment, and political institutions
10、(e.g., black newspapers, Negro League baseball and black cinema). Still, the forced exclusion of blacks from mainstream society, and persistent racist restrictions in housing, employment, education, and recreation contributed to interracial antagonisms and often violence (e.g., riots in New York Cit
11、y, 1900; Atlanta, Georgia, and Brownsville, Texas, 1906; Springfield, Illinois, 1908). The Supreme Court finally outlawed state-mandated segregation in its 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. See also: law and the cinema; migration/immigration Further reading Franklin, John Hope and Alfred A.
12、Moss (2000) From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 8th ed., New York: Knopf. Lofgren, Charles A. (1987) The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation, New York: Oxford University Press. JACQUELINE STEWART Raff operating as the Kinetoscope Company, they established a network of r
13、egional concessionaires throughout the continent. In 1896, when the Kinetoscope business faltered, they persuaded Edison to manufacture Thomas Armats Phantoscope as his own Vitascope projector, which they premiered at Koster when that venture failed, the company disappeared in 1913. RICHARD ABEL, MA
14、RTIN LOIPERDINGER Ramos, Antonio b. ?; d. ? exhibitor, producer, China Spanish-born Antonio Ramos was the most prominent showman in Shanghai from the early 1900s on. He first began exhibiting films at the citys teahouses and then within his own cinema circuit, including the 250-seat Hongkew Theater,
15、 built in 1908. In 1923, he established the Ramos Amusement Corporation and, as an agent for Famous Players- Lasky, produced several features. Before retiring to Spain in 1926, Ramos sold his theaters, many of which were acquired by the Zhongyang Film Company led by, among others, Zhang Shichuan, fo
16、r the exhibition of domestic films. ZHEN ZHANG Raymond, Matt b. 1874; d. 1941 technician, exhibitor, England An electrician at Londons Royal Polytechnic Institution, Raymond overcame serious technical problems installing the Cinmatographe Lumire for showman Felicien Trewey, who then engaged him to s
17、et up other Lumire shows. He probably also shot the first English Lumire films. After installng a Chard d. 1928 exhibitor, filmmaker, Great Britain Jasper Redfern was a Sheffield optician, photo grapher, and photographic supplier who also provided Rontgen X-Rays for medical use. In June 1896, he bec
18、ame a Lumire agent, presenting the Cinmatographe at the Empire Theatre, Sheffield, followed by shows in Rotherham, Liverpool, Manchester, and Chesterfield. In 1898, he toured with his local football team Sheffield United and filmed Sheffield United vs. Liverpool and additional cup matches, including
19、 the Football Association Cup Final, Sheffield United vs. Derby (1899). By 1903, he was touring a portable exhibition booth called Jasper Redferns Palace by the Sea, appearing at Southsea and Westcliffe. In 1908, he retired from the moving picture business and devoted himself to optical and medical
20、work at the Christie Hospital in Manchester. VANESSA TOULMIN re-enactments The Cinmatographe Lumires ability to reproduce reality was of course one of this apparatus principal features. It is thus not surprising that actualits and news event films were among the most popular early genres. Nor is it
21、surprising, in this context, that the major film manufacturers quickly developed the practice of sending operators (and sometimes entire teams of operators) to carry out what today we would call news stories on site, where the news event was unfolding. They even had their operators reconstruct, from
22、 scratch, various aspects of an event that had taken place out of the cameras view. For news events, whether because of their sudden and unexpected nature or their geographical distance, could escape the cameras notice. There were events, therefore, of which no image existed, leading manufacturers t
23、o treat them the way they already treated historical events: by re-constituting, reproducing, and re-enacting them. The re-enactment is thus a category of moving pictures that can include both past and current events. A re-enactment pertains to the realm of the event, and more generally to that of h
24、istory, whether distant or in the making. Should an event already be completed and thus seemingly beyond the cameras grasp, the filmmaker was at liberty to call upon all the resources of mise en scne (set designs, actors, costumes, etc.) in order to bring the past event to life. Early examples of su
25、ch historical re-enactments are Edisons The Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots (1895) and Lumires Mort de Marat The Death of Marat (1897). Should a current event, which would someday be viewed as a historical event, also be beyond the reach of the camera, here too the filmmaker would use these resour
26、ces to make it possible for the spectator to be a witness. Examples of this kind of re-enactment are Mlis Divers at Work on the Wreck of the “Maine” (1898) and Edisons Bombardment of Taku Forts (1900). In this way the filming of events was Entries A-Z 791 transformed, for the supposed requirements o
27、f history, into a process that turned operators into metteurs en scne, resulting in these somewhat peculiar artificially arranged scenes. The camera, that device for creating unparalleled reproductions of reality, thus could be involved in “reproducing” the event in both senses of the term: to re-pr
28、oduce, to make occur a “second time”; and to present a reproduction, a representation. The most singular kind of re-enactment produced during these early years was that known as the “fake newsreel” (in French, actualits reconstitues or even actualits postiches“artificial newsreels”). This was a cros
29、s between the actualits and the news event film and consisted of “recapturing” on film an event which had initially escaped the cameras penetrating eye. The most famous fake newsreel was in fact an anticipated newsreel, Reproduction, Coronation CeremoniesKing Edward VII, made in June 1902 by Georges
30、 Mlis for Charles Urban. Produced even before the coronation itself took place, this film was planned to be shown the evening of the event so it could enjoy the greatest possible news value. Mlis paid considerable attention to detail and undertook diligent research in order to prepare the decors in
31、his suburban Paris studio, which reconstructed the nave in Westminster Abbey. The strange thing is, because the king was ill, the real coronation was postponed until 9 August, but the copyright on the American version of the film, a whole continent away, still was dated 8 August! Other fake newsreel
32、s included famous re-enacted boxing films and war films. See also: cinema of attractions Further reading Gaudreault, Andr (1993) “The Cinematograph: A Historiographical Machine,” in David E.Klemm and William Schweiker (eds.) Meanings in Texts and Actions: Questioning Paul Ricoeur, 90 97, Charlottesv
33、ille: University of Virginia Press. Levy, David (1982) “Re-constituted Newsreels, Re-enactments and the American Narrative Film,” in Roger Holman (ed.), Cinema 19001906: An Analytical Study I, 243260, Brussels: International Federation of Film Archives. ANDR GAUDREAULT Reicher, Ernst b. 1885; d. 193
34、6 actor, director, Germany The son of famous stage actor Emanuel Reicher, Ernst began acting in theaters in Munich and Frankfurt before settling in Berlin in 1912, where he happened to meet future film director Joe May. Their friendship and collaboration resulted in a series of detective films featu
35、ring the gentleman sleuth Stuart Webbs, the first of which was Die geheimnisvolle Villa The Mysterious Villa (1914). Even after breaking with May later Encyclopedia of early cinema 792 that year, Reicher played Webbs in some 30 films over the next twelve years, providing the model for countless scre
36、en detectives of the silent era. SCOTT CURTIS Reinhardt, Max b. 1873; d. 1943 director, Germany As Germanys leading theater director, who revolutionized stagecraft in lighting, crowd direction, and scene change, Reinhardt was not only a major stylistic influence on the German cinema, but also crucia
37、l in training the elite of German actors entering the cinema in the early 1910s, including Albert Bassermann, Paul Wegener, and Ernst Lubitsch. His personal involvement in the cinema is difficult to assess. In 1909, his stage production of Sumurun was filmed in the USA, and in 1913/14 he lent his na
38、me to two PAGU films, the literary fantasies Insel der Seligen Island of the Happy Ones and Eine venezianische Nacht A Venetian Night, commissioned to promote the Autorenfilm movement. MICHAEL WEDEL Reis, Lus Toms b. 1878, Alagoinhas, Bahia; d. 1940, Rio de Janeiro filmmaker, Brazil Although a milit
39、ary man, Reis developed a unique documentary practice in Mato Grosso and Amazonas while producing visual records of the expeditions of the national telegraph commission. In 1914 he directed Expedio Roosevelt a Mato Grosso The Roosevelt Expedition to Mato Grosso, a chronicle of the ex-presidents jour
40、ney through the region. In 1916 he produced one of his most significant films, Rituais e festas bororo Bororo Rituals and Celebrations, a beautiful record of an indigenous tribe now extinct. Reis worked outside the industry and apart from other filmmakers, which makes him all that much more extraord
41、inary. See also: ethnographic films; expedition/exploration films ANA M.LPEZ Entries A-Z 793 Reliance One of several Independent companies to surface in 1910 as the Motion Picture Patents Companys attempted control of the American market proved futile. Started by Charles Baumann and Adam Kessel, who
42、 also had founded the New York Motion Picture Company, Reliance depended upon star power to launch its new films. It lured a host of Biograph players at its inception, although few stayed with the company for long. Despite its changing talent pool, Reliance established a reputation as a dependable p
43、roducer of dramatic films marked by innovative lighting. Sold in 1911 to Harry Aitken, Reliance was incorporated for one million dollars in 1913, at which time it had grown to encompass three studios. CHARLIE KEIL religious filmmaking During the period of early cinema religious films were made almos
44、t exclusively for the Christian religion. Other religions did not make propaganda films, partly because these faiths were mainly centered in less developed parts of the world, where filmmaking began later, and because the other proselytizing religion, Islam, was reluctant to use imagery. As for Juda
45、ism, while Jewish participation in early cinema was manifold (Jewish film pioneers, films about Jewish life, Zionist films), their involvement was as an ethnic rather than a religious community. A rare example of early film being used to promote a non-Christian religion would be Phalkes films which
46、were made from an ostensibly Hindu (and nationalistic) point of view. Films were produced for the Christian faith for a number of reasons by various organizations. Some of the first were made by commercial production companies, in the form of Passion Play films, one of the most important “genres” of
47、 the early era. The first of these was made by Kirchner in 1897: in twelve scenes it depicted the life of Christ from birth to crucifixion. Lumire had Georges Hatot make the second in 1898; Gaumont had Alice Guy make another in 1899; and other companies soon followed. In addition, the genuine Horitz
48、 Passion Play was filmed in 1897 in Bohemia, though fake versions also were circulated. Some showmen would combine shots of different versions of the Passion Play, along with magic lantern slides on the same theme. The magic lantern had been used for years by several religious organizations. The fou
49、nder of the (Anglican) Church Army, Wilson Carlisle, hit upon this visual tool in the 1880s as a means to attract working people to his sermons, and when moving pictures became available he added them to the “attractions” offered by his church, St. Mary at Hill in the City of London. His “modern” practices attracted much criticism at the time on the grounds of poor taste. Some Catholic clergy had used the lantern for propaganda since the late 19th century. In France projections lumineuses were widespread, and a