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1、E N E R G Y The Future of Biomass Technology developments, key costs and the future outlook By Paul Breeze ii Paul Breeze Dr Paul Breeze has specialized in the electricity sector for the past 25 years. He is contributing editor for the monthly international magazine for the power industry, Modern Po
2、wer Systems, and as freelance writer he has contributed to The Financial Times, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, The Observer and The Economist. In addition to the power sector, Paul Breezes interests include science and the computer industry. Copyright 2009 Business Insights Ltd This Management R
3、eport is published by Business Insights Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or redistribution of this Management Report in any form for any purpose is expressly prohibited without the prior consent of Business Insights Ltd. The views expressed in this Management Report are those of the publisher,
4、 not of Business Insights. Business Insights Ltd accepts no liability for the accuracy or completeness of the information, advice or comment contained in this Management Report nor for any actions taken in reliance thereon. While information, advice or comment is believed to be correct at the time o
5、f publication, no responsibility can be accepted by Business Insights Ltd for its completeness or accuracy iii Table of Contents The Future of Biomass Executive summary 10 Introduction 10 Biomass resources 10 Energy crops 11 Biomass power generation technologies 11 Environmental and legislative issu
6、es 12 The economics of biomass for electricity generation 12 The future of biomass power generation 13 Chapter 1 Introduction 16 Summary 16 Biomass development 18 The structure of the report 19 Chapter 2 Biomass resources 22 Introduction 22 The size of the resource 23 Types of biomass resource 26 Re
7、sidues 28 Fuelwood 32 Energy crops 34 Regional resources 35 Chapter 3 Energy crops 46 Introduction 46 Types of energy crop 48 Energy crop infrastructure 51 iv Energy crop yields 52 Chapter 4 Biomass power generation technologies 56 Introduction 56 Direct firing of biomass 57 Stoker combustors 58 Sus
8、pension combustion 59 Fluidized bed combustors 60 Steam cycle improvements 62 Co-firing 63 Direct firing fuel considerations 66 Fuel handling 66 Gasification 68 Fixed bed gasifiers 71 Fluidized bed gasifiers 71 Power production using biomass gasification 72 Modular systems 75 Anaerobic fermentation
9、of biomass 75 Biomass digesters 76 Chapter 5 Environmental and legislative issues 80 Introduction 80 The carbon cycle and atmospheric warming 80 Biomass and carbon dioxide 83 Atmospheric emissions other than carbon dioxide 84 Life cycle assessment 87 Energy crops 89 Waste fuel 92 Agricultural wastes
10、 92 Forestry residues 92 Urban waste 93 Legislative issues 93 Issues affecting biomass energy crops 95 v Chapter 6 The economics of biomass for electricity generation 98 Introduction 98 Installed costs of biomass generating plants 98 Fuel costs 103 Cost of electricity 109 Chapter 7 Future outlook 11
11、6 Introduction 116 Comparative costs of energy from biomass 118 Financial incentives and deterrents 121 Global biomass markets 123 Biomass growth and targets 125 Biomass prospects 132 Index 134 vi List of Figures Figure 2.1: Breakdown of biomass contribution to primary energy consumption (%) 24 Figu
12、re 2.2: Bagasse annual potential availability (thousand tonnes), 2007 30 Figure 2.3: Global wood fuel consumption (PJ), 2007 33 Figure 2.4: Current and predicted EU biomass resources (Mtoe/y) 36 Figure 2.5: Current and potential US biomass resources (Million dry tonnes/y), 2005 37 Figure 2.6: Potent
13、ial power generation from biomass among ASEAN countries (MW) 39 Figure 2.7: Breakdown of currently available biomass in China by type (%) 41 Figure 2.8: Maximum regional bioenergy production potentials (EJ/y) 43 Figure 4.9: Typical biomass combustion technology power generation efficiencies (%) 61 F
14、igure 4.10: Typical wood gas composition (%) 69 Figure 4.11: Biogas energy content (MJ/m3) 70 Figure 4.12: Power generation systems for biomass (%) 73 Figure 5.13: Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (ppm) 81 Figure 6.14: Estimated biomass generation installed costs in California ($/kW), 2007
15、102 Figure 6.15: Energy content of biomass fuels (MJ/kg) 104 Figure 6.16: Energy crop costs ($/tonne), 2007 106 Figure 6.17: Energy crop costs ($/tonne), 2007 107 Figure 6.18: UK wood fuel power costs (/MWh), 2008 109 Figure 6.19: Estimated biomass generation costs in California ($/MWh), 2007 112 Fi
16、gure 7.20: Levelized cost of electricity from power plants ($/MWh), 2009 120 Figure 7.21: Global biomass-based electricity production (TWh), 2007 126 Figure 7.22: Global biomass production by country (TWh), 2007 127 Figure 7.23: Biomass use in Europe (ktoe/%), 2007 128 Figure 7.24: US biomass-based
17、electricity production (TWh), 2009 130 Figure 7.25: EU renewable energy roadmap targets (TWh), 2006-2020 131 vii List of Tables Table 2.1: Breakdown of biomass contribution to primary energy consumption (%) 24 Table 2.2: Potential long term biomass supply by category, (EJ), 2000 27 Table 2.3: Bagass
18、e annual potential availability (thousand tonnes), 2007 29 Table 2.4: Global wood fuel consumption (PJ), 2007 33 Table 2.5: Current and predicted EU biomass resources (Mtoe/y) 35 Table 2.6: Current and potential US biomass resources (Million dry tonnes/y), 2005 37 Table 2.7: Potential power generati
19、on from biomass among ASEAN countries (MW) 39 Table 2.8: Breakdown of currently available biomass in China by type (%) 40 Table 2.9: Maximum regional bioenergy production potentials (EJ/y) 42 Table 3.10: Properties of miscanthus and switchgrass as combustion fuels 49 Table 3.11: Typical energy crop
20、yields 52 Table 4.12: Typical biomass combustion technology power generation efficiencies (%) 61 Table 4.13: Typical wood gas composition (%) 68 Table 4.14: Biogas energy content (MJ/m3) 69 Table 4.15: Power generation systems for biomass 73 Table 5.16: Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (ppm
21、), 1700-2100 81 Table 5.17: Typical atmospheric emissions from combustion power plants (kg/MWh) 85 Table 5.18: Power plant total energy balance (kJ/kWh) 87 Table 6.19: Installed cost of biomass CHP and power-only 100 Table 6.20: Estimated biomass generation costs in California, 2007 101 Table 6.21:
22、Energy content of biomass fuels (MJ/kg) 104 Table 6.22: Energy crop costs ($/tonne), 2007 105 Table 6.23: Energy crop costs ($/tonne), 2007 107 Table 6.24: UK wood fuel costs, 2008 108 Table 6.25: Cost of electricity from biomass CHP and power only installations 110 Table 6.26: Estimated biomass gen
23、eration costs in California 112 Table 7.27: IEA global power generation scenarios (TWh), 2008 117 Table 7.28: The cost of electricity from power plants ($/MWh), 2009 119 Table 7.29: Global biomass-based electricity production (TWh), 2007 126 Table 7.30: Global biomass production by country (TWh), 20
24、07 127 Table 7.31: Biomass use in Europe (ktoe/%), 2007 128 Table 7.32: US biomass-based electricity production (TWh), 2009 129 Table 7.33: EU renewable energy roadmap targets (TWh), 2006-2020 131 8 9 Executive summary 10 Executive summary Introduction Biomass has always been an important source of
25、energy for mankind and today it accounts for 10% of primary energy consumption. Most of this is traditional fuels used for cooking and heating in the developing world. In the developed world until the end of the last century its use was mainly restricted to niche applications such as combined heat a
26、nd power generation in the wood and paper industries. Today the perception of biomass is changing and it is being recognized once more as a valuable modern fuel that can provide a renewable energy to replace fossil fuel in power generation. As a consequence its use is growing at it is set to become
27、one of the major renewable sources over then next two decades. Biomass resources Biomass consists of all the plant material on the surface of the earth (and in the seas if algae are included). Almost two thirds of the total is regenerated each year during seasonal growth. The total regenerated is pr
28、obably equivalent to more than three times total global energy consumption in 2008. Around 3% of this is used each year, mostly in the form of wood. However biomass could supply much more, potentially up to one third of primary energy consumption, by 2050. There are a range of resources available th
29、at can be used for electricity production from biomass. These include wood, agricultural residues, forestry and paper making residues, municipal waste and dedicated energy crops. 11 Energy crops Energy crops are crops that are grown specifically to provide some form of fuel. The most widespread toda
30、y are crops grown for the production of ethanol or biodiesel but there is also a developing industry growing combustion fuel for power plants. Crops that are suitable need to be fast growing. Those that have so far proved the most suitable are fast growing woody crops such as willow and poplar that
31、can be coppiced and grasses such as switchgrass and micanthus. In addition to crop production, a mature biomass fuel industry also requires well established infrastructure capable of harvesting the fuel, storing it, preparing it for use as fuel and delivering it to power plants. In most cases this d
32、oes not exist today. Biomass power generation technologies The traditional ways of exploiting biomass for power generation are via direct combustion or gasification. Direct combustion plants tend to be the simplest but are relatively inefficient. Gasification plants vary in complexity with the more
33、complex offering higher efficiency. In addition to these two types of system it is possible to generate a methane rich gas by anaerobic digestion of certain animal wastes. A similar process occurs naturally within landfill waste sites and this gas can be collected and used for power generation too.
34、Biomass power plants tend to be relatively small in size and for combustion and gasification plants this makes them relatively inefficient. However many operate as combined heat and power plants with significant increases in efficiency. There appear to be notable economies of scale to be made with m
35、uch larger biomass combustion plants and some are now being planned. Meanwhile co-firing of biomass with coal in a coal-fired power plant offers one of the most efficient means of burning biomass today. 12 Environmental and legislative issues Biomass as fuel is carbon neutral since while it releases
36、 carbon into the atmosphere when burnt, the growth of new biomass absorbs the same amount carbon from the atmosphere. As a consequence it offers a valuable renewable source of energy. Even so, the use of biomass as an energy source raises a number of environmental and legislative issues. One of the
37、most difficult is that of maintaining a balance between land for the production of energy crops and land for producing food. Additional questions arise when waste materials are used to produce energy. Agricultural wastes are a valuable fuel source but part of each crop must be returned to the land i
38、f soil quality is not to deteriorate. A significant part of municipal waste can be burnt too but some of it is better recycled. Additionally, the combustion of biomass produces a number of potential pollutants in addition to releasing carbon dioxide and these must normally be controlled. The economi
39、cs of biomass for electricity generation The cost of electricity from a biomass-fired power plant depends on both the cost of the fuel and the cost of building the plant. Dedicated biomass power plants are relatively expensive to build, comparable in cost with coal-fired power plants. The cost of th
40、e fuel, on the other hand, can be near to zero for some waste materials though much higher for energy crops. Co-firing biomass fuel in a coal-fired power plant offers the cheapest and most efficient way of burning biomass and is being adopted in many countries where coal-based power production is in
41、 use. While the cost of electricity from a dedicated biomass power plant will generally be more expensive than from a similar coal-fired power plant, much will depend on the cost of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. The higher this cost, the more cost effective the biomass plants become.
42、 Many small biomass plants operate as combined heat and power plants and this helps make them much more economical. 13 The future of biomass power generation The perception of biomass as a source of energy has undergone a significant shift in perception since the beginning of this decade and is now
43、seen as a potential major source of renewable energy. According to the International Energy Agency it could provide between 10% and 20% of total global primary energy consumption by 2050. Achieving such a target will not be easy and is likely to be hampered by the effects of global warming which inc
44、reased use of renewable energy is aimed at controlling. Even if such an ambitious target cannot be achieved, the contribution of biomass to the generation of electricity is likely to rise significantly. Over the shorter term both the EU and the US envisage large increases in the use of biomass for p
45、ower generation and similar increases are likely across the developing world. Recent predictions suggest that the increase in biomass generating capacity may be larger than that of wind capacity in some regions over the next ten to twenty years. 14 15 Chapter 1 Introduction 16 Chapter 1 Introduction
46、 Summary Biomass has always been an important source of energy and until the industrial revolution mankind relied almost exclusively on it. The growth in the use of fossil fuels, particularly during the twentieth century, resulted in a shift away from biomass and its use declined. By the end of the
47、last century it was rarely used in the developed world. Elsewhere it has remained a significant source of energy, accounting for 10% of global consumption. Most of this is utilized for heating and cooking in the developing world. Meanwhile in the developed world the use of biomass for power generati
48、on has grown slowly and in small pockets, especially within the wood and paper industries where waste materials are readily and cheaply available as fuel. Generally, however, it has only been exploited in niche applications and specific regions rather than being viewed as a general source of power.
49、Today the perception of biomass is beginning to change. As a consequence of the environmental effects of global warming and the need for a shift to renewable sources of energy, biomass has been recognized again as a vital source of energy and electricity. This, coupled with a growing trade in biomass fuel promises to promote biomass to the forefront of the renewable technologies in the coming two decades. Biomass has some significant advantages as a renewable source of energy. First there are considerable quantities of biomass readily available in the form of agricultural residues which ca