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1、外文资料Database Management SystemsA database (sometimes spelled data base) is also called an electronic database , referring to any collection of data, or information, that is specially organized for rapid search and retrieval by a computer. Databases are structured to facilitate the storage, retrieval
2、 , modification, and deletion of data in conjunction with various data-processing operations .Databases can be stored on magnetic disk or tape, optical disk, or some other secondary storage device.A database consists of a file or a set of files. The information in these files may be broken down into
3、 records, each of which consists of one or more fields. Fields are the basic units of data storage , and each field typically contains information pertaining to one aspect or attribute of the entity described by the database . Using keywords and various sorting commands, users can rapidly search , r
4、earrange, group, and select the fields in many records to retrieve or create reports on particular aggregate of data.Complex data relationships and linkages may be found in all but the simplest databases .The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessin
5、g, and maintaining database records is called a database management system(DBMS).The programs in a DBMS package establish an interface between the database itself and the users of the database. (These users may be applications programmers, managers and others with information needs, and various OS p
6、rograms.)A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements form the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that arent available in regular reports. These questi
7、ons might initially be vague and/or poorly defined ,but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “manage” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who arent program
8、mers.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts:(1)a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files;(2) a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add , delete, maintain, and update the data;(3)and an inte
9、rface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems;Managers: who require more up-to-data information to make effective decisionCustomers: who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more curr
10、ent information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.Users: who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.Organizations : that discover information has a strategic value; they u
11、tilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.The Database ModelA data model describes a way to structure and manipulate the data in a database. The structural part of the model specifies how data should be represented(such as tree, tables, and so on ).The manipulative part of
12、 the model specifies the operation with which to add, delete, display, maintain, print, search, select, sort and update the data.Hierarchical Model The first database management systems used a hierarchical model-that is-they arranged records into a tree structure. Some records are root records and a
13、ll others have unique parent records. The structure of the tree is designed to reflect the order in which the data will be used that is ,the record at the root of a tree will be accessed first, then records one level below the root ,and so on.The hierarchical model was developed because hierarchical
14、 relationships are commonly found in business applications. As you have known, an organization char often describes a hierarchical relationship: top management is at the highest level, middle management at lower levels, and operational employees at the lowest levels. Note that within a strict hierar
15、chy, each level of management may have many employees or levels of employees beneath it, but each employee has only one manager. Hierarchical data are characterized by this one-to-many relationship among data.In the hierarchical approach, each relationship must be explicitly defined when the databas
16、e is created. Each record in a hierarchical database can contain only one key field and only one relationship is allowed between any two fields. This can create a problem because data do not always conform to such a strict hierarchy.Relational Model A major breakthrough in database research occurred
17、 in 1970 when E. F. Codd proposed a fundamentally different approach to database management called relational model ,which uses a table as its data structure.The relational database is the most widely used database structure. Data is organized into related tables. Each table is made up of rows calle
18、d and columns called fields. Each record contains fields of data about some specific item. For example, in a table containing information on employees, a record would contain fields of data such as a persons last name ,first name ,and street address.Structured query language(SQL)is a query language
19、for manipulating data in a relational database. It is non-procedural or declarative, in which the user need only specify an English-like description that specifies the operation and the described record or combination of records. A query optimizer translates the description into a procedure to perfo
20、rm the database manipulation.Network ModelThe network model creates relationships among data through a linked-list structure in which subordinate records can be linked to more than one parent record. This approach combines records with links, which are called pointers. The pointers are addresses tha
21、t indicate the location of a record. With the network approach, a subordinate record can be linked to a key record and at the same time itself be a key record linked to other sets of subordinate records. The network mode historically has had a performance advantage over other database models. Today
22、, such performance characteristics are only important in high-volume ,high-speed transaction processing such as automatic teller machine networks or airline reservation system.Both hierarchical and network databases are application specific. If a new application is developed ,maintaining the consist
23、ency of databases in different applications can be very difficult. For example, suppose a new pension application is developed .The data are the same, but a new database must be created.Object Model The newest approach to database management uses an object model , in which records are represented by
24、 entities called objects that can both store data and provide methods or procedures to perform specific tasks.The query language used for the object model is the same object-oriented programming language used to develop the database application .This can create problems because there is no simple ,
25、uniform query language such as SQL . The object model is relatively new, and only a few examples of object-oriented database exist. It has attracted attention because developers who choose an object-oriented programming language want a database based on an object-oriented model.Distributed DatabaseS
26、imilarly , a distributed database is one in which different parts of the database reside on physically separated computers . One goal of distributed databases is the access of information without regard to where the data might be stored. Keeping in mind that once the users and their data are separat
27、ed , the communication and networking concepts come into play .Distributed databases require software that resides partially in the larger computer. This software bridges the gap between personal and large computers and resolves the problems of incompatible data formats. Ideally, it would make the m
28、ainframe databases appear to be large libraries of information, with most of the processing accomplished on the personal computer.A drawback to some distributed systems is that they are often based on what is called a mainframe-entire model , in which the larger host computer is seen as the master a
29、nd the terminal or personal computer is seen as a slave. There are some advantages to this approach . With databases under centralized control , many of the problems of data integrity that we mentioned earlier are solved . But todays personal computers, departmental computers, and distributed proces
30、sing require computers and their applications to communicate with each other on a more equal or peer-to-peer basis. In a database, the client/server model provides the framework for distributing databases.One way to take advantage of many connected computers running database applications is to distr
31、ibute the application into cooperating parts that are independent of one anther. A client is an end user or computer program that requests resources across a network. A server is a computer running software that fulfills those requests across a network . When the resources are data in a database ,th
32、e client/server model provides the framework for distributing database.A file serve is software that provides access to files across a network. A dedicated file server is a single computer dedicated to being a file server. This is useful ,for example ,if the files are large and require fast access .
33、In such cases, a minicomputer or mainframe would be used as a file server. A distributed file server spreads the files around on individual computers instead of placing them on one dedicated computer.Advantages of the latter server include the ability to store and retrieve files on other computers a
34、nd the elimination of duplicate files on each computer. A major disadvantage , however, is that individual read/write requests are being moved across the network and problems can arise when updating files. Suppose a user requests a record from a file and changes it while another user requests the sa
35、me record and changes it too. The solution to this problems called record locking, which means that the first request makes others requests wait until the first request is satisfied . Other users may be able to read the record, but they will not be able to change it .A database server is software th
36、at services requests to a database across a network. For example, suppose a user types in a query for data on his or her personal computer . If the application is designed with the client/server model in mind ,the query language part on the personal computer simple sends the query across the network
37、 to the database server and requests to be notified when the data are found.Examples of distributed database systems can be found in the engineering world. Suns Network Filing System(NFS),for example, is used in computer-aided engineering applications to distribute data among the hard disks in a net
38、work of Sun workstation.Distributing databases is an evolutionary step because it is logical that data should exist at the location where they are being used . Departmental computers within a large corporation ,for example, should have data reside locally , yet those data should be accessible by aut
39、horized corporate management when they want to consolidate departmental data . DBMS software will protect the security and integrity of the database , and the distributed database will appear to its users as no different from the non-distributed database .In this information age, the data server has
40、 become the heart of a company. This one piece of software controls the rhythm of most organizations and is used to pump information lifeblood through the arteries of the network. Because of the critical nature of this application, the data server is also the one of the most popular targets for hack
41、ers. If a hacker owns this application, he can cause the companys heart to suffer a fatal arrest.Ironically, although most users are now aware of hackers, they still do not realize how susceptible their database servers are to hack attacks. Thus, this article presents a description of the primary me
42、thods of attacking database servers (also known as SQL servers) and shows you how to protect yourself from these attacks. You should note this information is not new. Many technical white papers go into great detail about how to perform SQL attacks, and numerous vulnerabilities have been posted to s
43、ecurity lists that describe exactly how certain database applications can be exploited. This article was written for the curious non-SQL experts who do not care to know the details, and as a review to those who do use SQL regularly. What Is a SQL Server?A database application is a program that provi
44、des clients with access to data. There are many variations of this type of application, ranging from the expensive enterprise-level Microsoft SQL Server to the free and open source my SQL. Regardless of the flavor, most database server applications have several things in common. First, database appl
45、ications use the same general programming language known as SQL, or Structured Query Language. This language, also known as a fourth-level language due to its simplistic syntax, is at the core of how a client communicates its requests to the server. Using SQL in its simplest form, a programmer can s
46、elect, add, update, and delete information in a database. However, SQL can also be used to create and design entire databases, perform various functions on the returned information, and even execute other programs.To illustrate how SQL can be used, the following is an example of a simple standard SQ
47、L query and a more powerful SQL query: Simple: Select * from dbFurniture.tblChairThis returns all information in the table tblChair from the database dbFurniture.Complex: EXEC master. xp-cmdshell dir c:This short SQL command returns to the client the list of files and folders under the c: directory
48、of the SQL server. Note that this example uses an extended stored procedure that is exclusive to MS SQL Server. The second function that database server applications share is that they all require some form of authenticated connection between client and host. Although the SQL language is fairly easy
49、 to use, at least in its basic form, any client that wants to perform queries must first provide some form of credentials that will authorize the client; the client also must define the format of the request and response.This connection is defined by several attributes, depending on the relative location of the client and what operating systems are in use. We could spend a whole article discussing various technologies such as DSN connections, DSN-less connection