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1、Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicat
2、ion. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 arbitrariness Th
3、ere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. Duality Language i
4、s a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of
5、 any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance i
6、s the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共
7、时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people
8、what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知识点 1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一
9、种社会活动。 2.几种观点和现象的提出者： 瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的区别 U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky in1950针对Saussures langue&parole提出Competence和performance 曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家 Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means
10、of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall-language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a
11、 finite set of elements. U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features 3.the word language preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language. Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。 4.in order to discover the nature of the underly
12、ing language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts. 5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so its hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题 6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in langu
13、ages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。 三、问答题 1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics-its defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive s
14、ounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics-Its simp
15、ly defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics-the application of linguisti
16、c principles and theories to language teaching and learning. 2.why do we say language is arbitrary? Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have differen
17、t words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, its only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name w
18、ould smell as sweet. 3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written
19、language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。 4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic po
20、int of view. 现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。 5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings? Speech enjoys for the following reasons: Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution. A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing
21、. speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 6.how is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys ? Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the l
22、anguage system for serious study Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 6.the distinction between langue and parole? langue is abstract, re
23、latively stable parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation. 1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The
24、study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are
25、arranged to form words is called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference
26、 to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学） The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistic
27、s refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and comp
28、utational linguistics. （计算机语言学） 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say an
29、d what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.
30、Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the tw
31、o major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider ran
32、ge of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a spee
33、ch community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of
34、language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in lin
35、guistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology一、定义 1.宽式音标Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbol
36、s and the diacritics. 3.清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音Vowel Th
37、e sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅音Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are ca
38、lled consonants. 7.音位Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessari
39、ly distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征Suprasegmental The p
40、honemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互补分布complementary distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语言的语音媒介Phonic
41、 medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。 14.爆破音stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech
42、sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 二、知识点 1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. of
43、 the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing. 3.Phonetic 组成 Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Oral . 口腔greatest source of modification of a
44、ir stream found here Nasal 鼻腔 5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 6.Obstruction between the back of th
45、e tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd. 7.nasal consonants: m / n / 9. A P
46、hone is a phonetic unit or segment. 10.Sequential rules例子 If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or
47、/w 11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone三、问答题 1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the h