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1、A Cross-cultural Interpretation of Chinese and English EuphemismsInterpersonal Culture and Psychological CultureAbstract: Euphemism touches upon all aspects of social lives and plays a significant role in peoples communication. Many linguists at home and abroad have studied euphemism from the aspect
2、s of sociolinguistics, rhetoric, pragmatics and discourse analysis. Euphemism is not only a matter of language but also one of culture. The present thesis aims to make a comparative study of English and Chinese euphemisms in terms of culture, especially interpersonal culture and psychological cultur
3、e.Key words: euphemism, comparative study, interpersonal culture, psychological culture摘要：委婉语涉及到社会生活的方方面面，在人们的交流中扮演着重要的角色。国内外语言学家从社会语言学、修辞学、语用学及话语分析等角度对委婉语进行了研究。委婉语既是一种语言现象，更是一种文化现象。为了在跨文化交际中成功应用委婉语，本文拟从文化层面，主要从人际文化和心理文化层面分析中英委婉语相似与相异的表现形式,总结这些表现形式背后的文化成因。关键词：委婉语，比较研究，人际文化，心理文化IntroductionEuphemism
4、is a long-standing linguistic and cultural phenomenon in both English-speaking countries and China and plays an important part in peoples communication. Every society, every social class has euphemisms of their own. Enright (1985: 29) points out “a language without euphemisms would be a defective in
5、strument of communication”. Hugh Rawson (1981: 73) also affirms “euphemisms are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plain-spoken, can get through a day without using them”. Many scholars at home and abroad have made detailed studies of euphemis
6、m from different aspects. Based on their achievements, the present thesis attempts to make a cross-cultural comparative study of English and Chinese euphemisms in terms of culture, especially interpersonal culture and psychological culture.1. Literature review of euphemism1.1 Definition of euphemism
7、Euphemism is a widely and frequently used figure of speech, and there have been various definitions of it so far. The word “euphemism” originates from Greek. The prefix “eu-” means “well or good” and the stem “-pheme-” represents “speech or saying”. Thus the literal meaning of the word is “to speak
8、with good words or in a pleasant manner”. Later on, euphemism is defined more and more precisely. In the new edition of The Oxford Concise Dictionary, it is described as “substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one”. In Websters New Collegiate Dictionary, it is def
9、ined as “substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant”. In China, Chen Wangdao (2002: 56) first defines euphemism in his Introduction to Rhetoric. The definition reads, “One kind of figures of speech, saying something indirectly, but
10、connoting and substituting with roundabout and implicit words or even metaphorical expression”. Although scholars define euphemism from different angles, their definitions are similar in that they all agree that euphemism is an indirect, roundabout, and polite mode of expression used to talk about s
11、omething unpleasant. It can make the unpleasant things sound better, and make people feel good.1.2 Classification of euphemism1.2.1 The positive euphemisms and the negative euphemismsAccording to Hugh Rawson (1981: 1), from the perspective of semantics, euphemism can be divided into two general type
12、s: the positive and the negative.The positive euphemisms can also be called stylistic ones, which magnify the word meaning, making the euphemized seem grander and more important than they really are. The positive euphemisms include many occupational titles, which save the faces of workers by elevati
13、ng their job status. Thus, mechanic is promoted to automobile engineer, garbage men to sanitation engineers, and so on. In addition, many institutional euphemisms are also included in the positive euphemisms, which convert madhouse into mental hospital, college into university. This kind of euphemis
14、m is usually used widely in the official language and in language of some other formal styles.The negative euphemisms or traditional euphemisms are closely connected with taboos, including everything that people are not willing to deal with directly. In many cultures, it is forbidden to pronounce th
15、e name of God, so it is no doubt that God is called the Creator, the Maker or our Father, etc. Sex, disease, death, excretion, bodily function, etc., are also tabooed subjects that should be euphemized in this way. For example, in English, there are many euphemistic expressions such as to go somewhe
16、re, to answer natures call, to wash hands or to be convenient, etc. are employed to refer to the tabooed subject of excretion. 1.2.2 The unconscious euphemisms and the conscious euphemismsAll euphemisms, whether positive or negative, may be used either unconsciously or consciously. Therefore, accord
17、ing to whether people remember their original motivations or not, euphemisms are also divided into unconscious euphemisms and conscious euphemisms (Rawson, 1981: 3).The unconscious euphemisms refer to those that have been used so long that almost nobody remembers how they came into being. For exampl
18、e, the word cemetery, derived from the Greek word for sleeping place or dormitory, now serves as a euphemism for graveyard. The word indisposition, originally meaning incapacity to deal with something, now euphemistically refers to slight illness or ill health. For those words mentioned above, becau
19、se of their long-time using, users are not conscious of their original meanings.The conscious euphemisms are different. When employing this kind of euphemisms, people not only know their original meanings but also understand their implied meanings. For example, in a dinner party, a lady stood up and
20、 said she wanted to add some powder or make a phone call; we know that these euphemisms stand for something else. For instance, if somebody says: “here comes the sanitation man”, everybody understands that here garbage man is upgraded into sanitation man and it is time to get out the garbage cans. 2
21、. Theoretical framework for the thesisFrom the ancient time until now, different scholars have made various interpretations of culture from different aspects. All the interpretations point to the fact that culture includes not only customs and institutions, but also values and beliefs. Put simply, c
22、ulture refers to the entire way of the life of a society.Some linguists explore culture from three different levels (Gao, 2001: 8): the physical culture at the surface level, the conventional or interpersonal culture at the intermediate level and the psychological culture at the deep level. The phys
23、ical culture involves objects or materials. Here, “physical” is not equivalent to “bodily”. Physical culture is the results of human behavior and also constitutes targets that people interact with; they form the environment that behaviors occur. In other words, they are extensions of behaviors.The c
24、onventional or interpersonal culture is composed of the institutional and customary aspects of the community. They are not substantial objects, but mechanisms that have operational functions. Culture at its deep level consists of psychological storage of the community. These are the common values an
25、d beliefs of the community that guide peoples behavior. Such values shape principles of social organizations and the ways in which people deal with their physical environment.The three levels of culture are interrelated. On one hand, the deep level often has manifestations at the intermediate and su
26、rface levels. On the other hand, changes at the surface and intermediate levels may bring about changes at the deep level.3. Cross-cultural interpretation of Chinese and English euphemisms 3.1 The relationship of language, culture and euphemismLanguage and culture are closely related. Language mirro
27、rs culture and delivers cultural information. Culture enriches and diversifies language. Just as Sapir (2002: 182) claims that “language is a guide to social reality”. As the main tool for human communication, language reflects social reality. People with different cultural backgrounds have differen
28、t values and thoughts, and accordingly language reflects their different points of view. When language is used in communication, it is bound up with culture in many ways. In a word, learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture.Euphemism, as an indispensable part of all languages, is
29、also greatly influenced by culture. Patrick Hartwell (1982: 316) points out euphemisms are “a natural part of the social world of words” and they tell us “a good deal about the values of a culture”. Thus, euphemism is a reflection of culture. It mirrors morality, life style, social psychology, and h
30、ence is characterized by national or regional similarities and differences. English and Chinese have been created and developed in a long period of social and cultural development. During the process, there exist both generality and particularity. In terms of language, English euphemisms and Chinese
31、 euphemisms have not only similarities but differences, which reflect different social-cultural backgrounds. The present thesis aims to make a cross-cultural interpretation of Chinese and English euphemisms from the perspective of culture, mainly in terms of interpersonal culture and psychological c
32、ulture. 3.2 Interpersonal culture reflected in Chinese and English euphemisms3.2.1 Euphemisms for “name addressing”Name addressing is far-ranging. The present thesis only focuses on the typical name addressing, such as names of God, the Devil, and people superior in rank or age.3.2.1.1 English euphe
33、misms for “name addressing”Christianity has a far-reaching influence upon the western society. Using words related to God is regarded as offensive. As a result, there are many English euphemisms for God like the Creator, the Maker, Holy One, the Almighty, the Savior, King of kings, Sovereign of the
34、Universe, Our Father, etc. (Li, 1989: 212). At the same time, ancient people were superstitious that they would offend the Devil and find themselves getting into trouble by calling the Devil directly. As an English proverb goes, “Speak of the Devil, and he appears”. Therefore, there are hundreds of
35、euphemisms for the Devil as well, such as the Black One, the Big D, Evil One, the Wicked One, the Enemy, Prince of Darkness, gentleman in black, etc.Western people are free to call their elders by the name because they value equality. To them title itself has nothing to do with equality. Therefore,
36、there are fewer euphemisms related to it. The English-speaking people do not have a strong sense of social ranks like the Chinese. People of different ages or of different social status can apply Mr., Mrs., or Miss to show politeness. In America, whatever another persons age, rank or position may be
37、, people may address each other by the name. For example, many college students call their professors by their first namesJohn, Helen, etc. The professors do not regard this as a sign of disrespect, but rather, as an indication that the professor is considered friendly and has a sense of equality. F
38、urthermore, it is acceptable for the younger generation to have the same name as the old. For example, the present president of the United States Bushs name is the same as his fathers. This kind of cultural system is quite different from that of China.3.2.1.2 Chinese euphemisms for “name addressing”
39、In China, there does not exist a common religious belief, and thus the taboos against names of God and the Devil do not have a strong impact on Chinese people and Chinese language. The fact that Chinese call gods and the devils by the name best demonstrates this point, such as His Wang Mu (王母娘娘), fo
40、rces of evil (妖魔鬼怪), etc.Although there are fewer euphemisms for Gods and the Devils names, people attach much importance to euphemisms of naming taboos, which are originated from the traditional Chinese culture. Chinese feudal society has a long history of two thousand years, and feudal ideology in
41、fluences Chinese language deeply. Inequality of class and respecting the elders appear to be a feature rooted in our language. There are mainly three kinds of naming taboos: state taboo, official taboo and family taboo. State taboo refers to avoiding the personal names of the emperors. In the feudal
42、 society, the emperor had the absolute authority and his name should not be mentioned. When the name should appear in writing or speaking, some change must be made. For example, Emperor Wen(文帝), an emperor of the Han Dynasty, was named Heng(恒). As a result, Mount Heng(恒山) was renamed as Mount Chang(
43、常山). Kang Xi(康熙), an emperor of the Qing Dynasty, was called Xuanye(玄烨), so people used the word Yuan(元) for Xuan(玄). Like the emperors, the local officials also avoided their names mentioned. For example, a local official named Tian Deng(田灯), he changed light lantern(点灯)a tradition on the fifteenth
44、 in lunar Januaryinto set fire(放火).Therefore, there comes the allusion that “the officials light lantern, while common people set fire” 只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯(Deng and Liu, 1989: 182). Customs like these were popular, so family taboos were originated. In the family group names of the ancestors and elders can
45、not be mentioned directly, especially the names of younger generations cannot be the same as the elders, even the same sound. Otherwise, it was regarded as offensive and impolite to the elders.Although in modern China there are no such strict rules, Chinese avoid calling people superior in rank or a
46、ge directly by their names, so we have a large number of respectful terms or expressions in daily communication. For example, 令 which is a polite and respectful addressing of your, such as 令尊 which means your father, 令堂 which means your mother; 贤 can also express respect to others, particularly to t
47、he younger generation, such as贤弟 which means my good brother and贤侄 which means my good nephew; 贵 which means the honored is another polite addressing form of your, such as 贵姓 which means your surname, and 贵校 which means your school. All of these show the Chinese value of belittling oneself to esteem
48、 others.3.2.2 Euphemisms for “marriage and birth”For many trainers in cross-cultural and intercultural communication, individualism-collectivism is the most important value dimension on which cultures can be compared (Zhao and Li, 1999: 56). Therefore, the difference between the social values can al
49、so greatly influence the euphemisms for marriage and birth.3.2.2.1 English euphemisms for “marriage and birth”In western cultures, individual rights and obligations come first. Western countries are a competitive world and the mobility of the population is so high that it is hard to establish a stable group. They favor individualism, which emphasizes the importance of doing ones best for personal welfare and achievements. Individualism embodied in marriage is the emphasis on independence