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1、Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics . 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commun
2、ication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性（创造性） Duality 双重性 Displacement 移位性 Cultural transmission 文化传递 5
3、.语言能力Competence （抽象） Competence is the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance（具体） Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a di
4、achronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time . 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言 langue （抽象） The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 1
5、0.言语 parole （具体） The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性 Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性 Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知识点 1.language i
6、s not an isolated phenomenon, it s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 2.几种观点和现象的提出者： 瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure :Langue 和 parole 的区别 美国语言学家N.Chomsky:in1950 针对Saussure s langue the description of a language as it changes through
7、 time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes
8、 writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语言和言语 The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made
9、 the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language fo
10、r serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 195
11、0 s. He defines competence as the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. Chapter Two Phonology 一、定义 1.宽式音标Broad tra
12、nscription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音 Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produce
13、d in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音 Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstructio
14、n are called vowels. 6.辅音 Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音位 Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, it s a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体Allophones Different phones
15、 which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素 phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it s a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in e
16、very way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征Suprasegmental The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stre
17、ss ,intonation and tone. 12.互补分布complementary distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are th
18、e phonic medium of language. 在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。 14.爆破音 stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 二、知识点 1.stati
19、stics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing. 3.Phonetic 组成 Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly develop
20、ed Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 4.articulatory Apparatus /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Oral cavity 口腔 greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity 鼻腔 5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any othe
21、r, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the fron
22、t of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd. 7.nasal consonants: m / n / 8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 9.Sequential rules 例子 If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a w
23、ord, the combination should obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w 10.English has four basic types of intonation :Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone 三、问答题 1.what are th
24、e three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory- studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic ident
25、ity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic- studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。 听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。 声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。 2.how are the English consonants classified?
26、 By place of articulation and By manner of articulation 3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为 什么 ? Phonetics des
27、cription of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos 4.what s a phone? how is it different
28、from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phonea speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones -actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it impor
29、tant to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要? Minimal pair two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal set a group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上述特征
30、的语音组合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. 6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transc
31、ription diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. 7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 序列规则Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则 Assimilation rules The assi
32、milation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则 Deletion rule It s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented. Chapter Three Morphology 一、定义 1.词素 Morp
33、heme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由词素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must
34、be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.词根 Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词缀 Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 6.曲
35、折词缀inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派生词缀Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. 8.词干 Stem A st
36、em is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 9.形态学规则Morphological rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前缀 Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning
37、of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ?be -? and ?en(m) -? 11.后缀 Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological
38、 rules, we must guard against Over-generalization. 二、知识点 Inflectional morphology 1.Morphology Derivational morphology Free morphemes Morphemes Root Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes Affixes Prefix Derivational affixes 2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix 4.Compound features:
39、 orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its compo
40、nent Chapter Four Syntax 一、定义 1.句子 sentence A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 2.语言运用Linguistic competence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.谓语 Predicate The part of a sent
41、ence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.定式子句Finite Clause A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. 5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C) In a complete sentence, t
42、he incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . 6.主要子句Matrix Clause In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause. 7.层次结构Hierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic ca
43、tegories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.语法关系Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 9.句法类型Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 10.
44、表层结构S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深层结构D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普遍语法General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general
45、 principles and parameters about nature language. 13.移动 规则 Move A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句法移位Syntactic movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.转换原则Transformation r
46、ules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 16.X 标杆理论X-bar theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X ”（ Spec） X(Co
47、mpl). 一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式 X”（ Spec）X(Compl) a: X b: X Spec X Spec X X X compl X complement NP the student who likes linguistics consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP(,)有冠词、 名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语， 名词是核心词， 子句是补足语。 二、知识点 1.syntax 这个单词源于Greek,本义是 a
48、rrangement. 2.我们把syntax 的学习看作a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence. 3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. 4.判断题： the syntactic rules of any language are fini
49、te in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 5.判断题 :A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood. 一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动 或事件。 6.句子的分类simple sentence Types of sentences coordinate or compound sentence Complex sentence 简单句 -It consists of a single clause which contains a