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1、Word-formationWord-formation or word-building is that branch of lexicology which studies the patterns on which a language, in this case, the English language, coins new words. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War The three major processes of word f
2、ormation:Composition or Compounding Definition: Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounding is the most productive word-formation process in contemporary English.Identity crisis 个性危机 stand-up collar 竖领 hit-and-run t
3、actics 打了就跑的战术 spoon-feed 填鸭式灌输， 娇养糊里糊涂 muddle-headed/minded 笨嘴笨舌 heavy-tongued无忧无虑 carefree 饱经风霜weather-beaten/worn 令人心碎 heart-breaking 半死不活dead-alive/dead-and-alive 不合时宜 ill-timed/badly-timed 批量生产 mass-produceCompounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. For example, A scho
4、olboy is more concise than “a boy attending school”; “Up-to-the-minute information” is more vivid than “the latest information” ; “The old man would sit for hours, thinking sadly of all the might-have-beens” is more compact and expressive than “thinking sadly of the desirable things that could have
5、happened in the past.”The relative criteria of a compound word Orthographic criterion(书写标准) : Compounds are written in three ways, e.g. solid: airmail; hyphenated: air-conditioning; open: air force, air raid.Phonological criterion(语音标准) : Compound accent: a single stress on the first element; or a m
6、ain stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element. E.g. blackboard, blue bottle (a large buzzing fly with blue body)Normal phrase accent: a secondary stress on the first element and a main stress on the second element. E.g. blue bottle (a bottle which is blue)Semantic crit
7、erion(语义标准) : A compound is a combination forming a unit expressing a single idea. The lexical meaning of the components are closely joined together to create a compound with a meaning which one can easily recognize, e.g. backdoor, sunset, workday. However, the meaning of a compound is not always th
8、e sum of the meanings of its parts, e.g. dog days, flatfoot ( a policeman), greenhouse, greenback (美钞)，green-hand(生手), greenroom（演员休息室）, mother wit（天生的智力）, Indian paper（字典纸）.More examples: home letters(家信), home voyage（归程）, home life（家庭生活）, home affairs（家庭事务），home bird（不爱外出的人）, home economics（家政学）,
9、home front（大后方）, home games（在本地举行的比赛）, home help（家务女佣）, homemaker（主妇）, home plate（棒球的本垒打）, home sickness（思家病）.Word order: A flower pot (花盆) a pot flower (盆花) tiptoe(脚尖) deaf-mute（聋哑者）Some of them were influenced by French: court martial(军事法庭) ; president elect（当选总统）; ambassador designate（尚未上任的大使）Cla
10、ssification of compounds Compounds can be classified according to parts of speech of the compounds. noun compounds : airplane , flower pot adjective compounds: weather-beaten , snowwhite verb compounds: proof-read, baby-sit proposition compounds: notwithstanding, alongside of conjunction compounds:
11、whenever ,whereas pronoun compounds: another , myselfThe three commonest types are noun compounds, adjective compounds, and verb compounds.noun compounds Noun + noun rainwater 雨水; springwater 泉水; houseplants 室内植物;fireball 火球 ; firecracker 鞭炮 ; spacecraft/spaceship 太空船；spacesuits 太空服；mousemat ； 鼠标垫 D
12、ream Team；bar code 条形码； lip service 口头上说得好听的话； information highway 信息高速公路； science fiction 科幻小说； sugar cane 甘蔗；gaslight 煤气灯； Noun + verb daybreak 拂晓； nightfall 夜幕降临；sunset/sunrise 日落， earthquake 地震；landslip/landslide (山体滑坡)； headache toothache ；stomachache ；heartbeat drumbeat； footbeat 脚步节拍 ； wingbe
13、at 翅翼振动 ； window-dress 布置橱窗； water-supply 自来水 ； snowfall 降雪量； toothpick 牙签； haircut ； pickpocket ； scarecrow稻草人 ( scare the crow) Verb + noun cry baby (爱哭的婴儿)； playboy (花花公子) ；glowworm (发光虫)； watch-dog (看家狗), swearword（骂人话）, breakwater（防波提）, driveway（车道）, jump suit（伞兵跳伞服，连衣裤工作服）；rattle snake(响尾蛇) Ve
14、rb + adv / prep changeover (转变进程) ； setback (挫折)； breakdown (崩溃)， show-off(炫耀), slip-up（疏忽，不幸事故）, put-off（推迟，搪塞）, follow-up（连续广告法）sit-in, dropout, breakdown, walk-on, walkout, setback, take-off Adjective + noun clear-way(超速道路), easy-chair, deadline, hard disk, soft disk，red tape(官样文章) adverb + noun
15、under-clothes(内衣), after-effect（后效，副作用）, upgrade（升级）, overburden V+ing + noun chewing gum(口香糖), baking powder（发酵粉）, reading lamp（台灯）, lodging house（分间出租供人休息用的房屋），leading article(社论), working party（作业队） Adverb + verb outlet(出口), upset（颠覆）, downfall（垮台，陷落）, upstart（暴发户）, onflow（滚滚向前）adjective compound
16、s Pre-modifier VS. Post-modifier ( describe a noun phrase or restrict its meaning in some way) Compound modifiers, because of their expressiveness and brevity, are used quite flexibly in current English, especially in journalistic writings. noun + adjective skin-hungry, power-hungry, news-hungry, ca
17、reer-hungry (急于成名的) , bloodthirsty duty-free, tax-free, fat-free, toll-free, maintenance-free, dust-free, interest-free, care-free, ice-free, danger-free, nuclear-weapon-free water-proof, fire-proof, bullet-proof, rain-proof, bomb-proof, vibration-proof air-sick, seasick, car-sick, home-sick, hearts
18、ick (沮丧的) user-friendly, reader-friendly profit-conscious,time-conscious, class-conscious, environment-conscious, security-conscious slap-happy(被打得晕头转向的) boxer， trigger-happy (嗜杀成性的)gangster， travel-happy(对旅游入迷的) accident-prone, crisis-prone (危机四伏的)，error-prone, air-tight(不透气的)，water-tight, light-ti
19、ght(不透光的), rain-tight work-shy(不愿工作的)，camera-shy(怕上镜头的)， publicity-shy (不愿出头露面的) color-blind, night-blind blood-weary (厌战的)，travel-weary(旅途劳累的) stone-deaf, skin-deep, snow-white, ice-cold, knee-deep, paper-thin, mirror-bright, feather-light, fire-hot, crystal-clear, waist-high, shoulder-high, life-l
20、ong, grass-green, dog-tired, threadbare（穿旧的） college-bound/preparatory (准备考大学的)，labor-short (缺乏劳动力的)，top-heavy(头重脚轻的)，penny-wise(小事聪明的) ， oven-fresh (刚出炉的) line-dry(一晾就干的)，world-famous adjective + adjective wet-cold, icy-cold, red-hot, white-hot, bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, shabby-genteel(穷酸的)，dead-ali
21、ve(半死不活的)，dark-blue, deep-blue, light-blue, pale-blue, bright-red, bloody-red, yellow-green, yellowish-green，social-political V+ing + adjective steaming-hot/smoking-hot (滚烫的，热气腾腾的)，soaking-wet/wringing-wet(湿淋淋的，湿得可拧出水来的)，biting-cold/freezing-cold (冷得刺骨的，冰冷的) Adverb/Prep + adjective ever-victorious (
22、战无不胜的)，over-cautious, all-round (全面的)， far-reaching (深远的，广泛的)，evergreen (tree), wide-awake (机警的)，over-sensitive, over-anxious, under-ripe (不成熟的)，too-rapid noun +V+ing peace-loving, time/space/energy/labor-saving, time-consuming, summer-flowering(夏季开花的), ocean-going (远洋的)， fault-finding, record-break
23、ing, heart-breaking, hair-raising, side-splitting (令人捧腹的)，thirst-quenching (解渴的)，man-eating noun + V+ed heart-felt(衷心的), air-born（空降的，空运的）, home-made, travel-worn（旅行得疲乏的）, hen-pecked, book-filled, poverty-stricken, weather-beaten, thunder-struck, suntanned adjective/adverb + V+ing fresh-frozen(速冻的),
24、 easy-going(随和的), familiar-sounding (听起来熟悉的)，hard-working, ever-lasting (永恒的) adjective/adverb + V+ed newly-developed, well-balanced, far-fetched (牵强附会的)，half-baked(烤得半生不熟的，肤浅的), hard-won (来之不易的)，quick-frozen (速冻的), new-laid (eggs), so-called, fresh-caught, newly-built, well-informed, well-organized
25、 noun + Noun+ed hot-tempered(急性子的)，chicken-hearted (胆怯的，软弱的)，honey-mouthed, paper-backed (平装本的)， eagle-eyed(目光尖锐地) adjective/adv. + Noun+ed short-sighted, tender-hearted, sweet-hearted(性情温和的), green-fingered(擅长园艺的)，open-handed, single-handed, bald-headed, empty-headed, hot-headed, kind-hearted, ligh
26、t-hearted, whole/half-hearted, absent-minded, narrow/broad-minded, double-faced, straight-faced, blue-eyed, muddle-minded/headed (糊里糊涂) , commercially-minded, heavy-tongued (笨嘴笨舌的)，middle-aged, cold-blooded, strong-bodied, rosy-cheeked, apple-cheeked, close/tight-fisted(吝啬的)， bare-footed, white-hair
27、ed, high-heeled, ill-intentioned, weak-kneed (易屈服的)，long-legged, close/tight-lipped (嘴紧的), ill-mannered, thick/thin-skinned (脸皮厚/薄)，high-spirited, iron-willed, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, glib-tongued (油嘴滑舌的)，loose-tongued(嘴不严的) adjective + Noun long-distance, full-length（未删节的），white-collar, red-
28、letter(喜庆的), ，full-time, first-rate, high-speed, high-level, low-frequency, left-hand, real-time(实时的)， long-range, deep-sea (fish) Verb + Noun break-neck (危险的)， telltale(搬弄是非的)， cut-rate (减价的，次等的) Phrases or sentences at-risk（处境危险的）, in-your-face（明目张胆的）, devil-may-care(不顾一切的), dog-eat-dog（狗咬狗的）, rou
29、nd-the-clock, on-the-spot, cards-on-the-table, matter-of-fact, never-to-be-forgotten, once-in-a-life-time, off-the-cuff (临时想起的意见)opinion, back-up (备用) a stand-up collar (竖领), a walk-in closet (走入式大壁橱)，a see-through shirt （透明的衬衫） take-home pay，cross-border raid，a keep-fit class（保健班）verb compounds The
30、 common way to form a compound verb is by means of back-formation. The back-formation is a process of word formation by which a word is created by dropping the supposed or imagined affixesHousekeeping housekeep, test-drive(试车)，machine-gun, nickname, spotlight, honeymoon, outline, speed-read, soft-la
31、nd, vacuum-clean, mass-produce, sight-see, proof-read, tape-record, chain-smoke, ghost-write, air-condition, baby-sit, window-shop, spoon-feed, hen-peck, snowball, middle-road(走中间道路), chain-react, face-harden(使表面硬化), wire-pull (幕后操纵)，daydream, skyrocket, sleepwalk, highlight, safeguard, whitewash, s
32、weet-talk， job-hopA compound verb can also be formed by means of analogy 1.chain-drink: from chain-smoke2.bottle-feed: feed from a bottle. from breast-feed: feed from a mothers breastA compound verb can also be formed by means of verb phrasesoverwork, withhold(扣留), cross-question(盘问)，upbuild (建立), u
33、plift, uproot, fast-talk(花言巧语地企图说服)，off-load(卸货)， outeat(吃得比多)， outgo, outgrow , ill-treat, overhear, overtake, undergo, underline, undermine, undertake,Affixation or Derivation It is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix, or combining form, to an
34、 already existing word.A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek, such as auto-（from GK autos self）.据统计下列14个词根和20个词缀出现在词典里10，000多个英语单词中 词前缀词根Preceptpre- (before)capere (take, seize) detainde- (away, from)tenere (hold, have)intermittentinter- (between)mi
35、ttre (send) offerob- (against)ferre (bear, carry)Insistin- (into)stare (stand)monographmono- (alone, one)graph (write)epilogueepi (upon)egein (say, study)词前缀词根aspectad- (to, toward)spicere (see)uncomplicated un- (not); com- (together) plicare (fold) nonextendednon- (not); ex- (out of) tendere (stret
36、ch) reproduction re- (back, again); pro- (forward) ducere (lead) indisposed in- (not); dis- (apart from)ponere (put, place)oversufficient over- (above); sub- (under)facere (make, do)mistranscribemis- (wrong); trans- (across)scribere (write)Number-related prefixes from Latinprefixmeaningexamplesuni-o
37、neuniformduo-twoduet (二重唱/奏）tri-threetrio (三人组）quad-, quart-fourquadruplets (四胞胎）quint-fivequintupletssextsixsexet (六人组）septsevenseptember (7th month, Roman calendar)oct-eightoctobernonaninenonagenarian (90-99岁的人）Number-related prefixes from Latindeca-tendecadecent-hundredcentigrade (一百度的）multi-many
38、multiplyprim-, prin-firstprimarysecundsecondsecondaryambiboth (双）ambivalent (两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的）equi-equalequidistant (等距离的）omni-allomnipotence (全能）semi-, semhalfsemester (half a year 学期）demi-halfdemitasse (half a cup for serving coffee (一小杯清咖啡） Number-related prefixes from GreekprefixmeaningexamplesMono
39、-onemonologueduo-, di-twodialoguetri-threetriangletetra-fourtetrameter (四音步诗）penta-fivepentameter，pentagonhexa-sixhexagonhepta-sevenheptagondeka-, dec-tendecathlonhemi-halfhemispherepan-allpandemic (大流行病）I.PrefixationThe definition of prefixationPrefixation is the formation of new words by adding pr
40、efixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixesNon-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endan
41、ger, form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege The classification of prefixesIn some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. It seems more helpful to classify the most impo
42、rtant productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories:The most productive prefixesPrefixes which are negative a-, dis-, in-, non-, un- Prefixes which are reversative or privativede-, dis-, un-Prefixes which are pejorativemal-, mis-, pseudo-Prefixes which are of degree or size
43、arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under- Prefixes which are of attitude anti-, co-, contra- counter-, pro- Prefixes which are locative extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-, Prefixes which are of time and order ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re- P
44、refixes which are of numbersemi-, uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly- Prefixes which are of a miscellaneous category Auto-, neo- pan-, proto-, vice-1.Negative prefixa-/an-amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, dis-dishonest, discontent, disobey, disagreein-Incomplete, inconsistent, incorr
45、ect, invulnerable, illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregularnon-nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un-uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest2.Reversative or privative prefix含“消除”意思de-defrost, deregulation, degeneration, denationali
46、ze，dehydratedepollute, devalue, decentralizeun-undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmaskdis-disconnect, dishearten, disinterested(公正的，无私的), disambigulate 3.Pejorative prefixmis-misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, mal-maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopment,maltreat, malodorous, malnutritionpseudo-pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend, pseudodemocratic,4) Prefixes of degree or sizehyper-hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious