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1、Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.2 what is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication1.3 design features of languagearbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaningduality: the property of having two levels of structurescreativi
2、ty(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.cultural transmission: language is passed o through t
3、eaching and learning , rather than by instinct.1.4 origin of languageThe bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animalThe pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and painThe yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working1.5 functions of language1.5.1 the main functions of language:D
4、escriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual informationExpressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.Social function: interpersonal function, serves to
5、 establish and maintain social relations between people1.5.2 according to Jakobson:Emotive: addresser 表达情感Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生Referential: context描述客观事实Poetic: message语言本身的美Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself1.5.3 according to Hall
6、iday this system contains three macrofunctionsIdeational: to organize the speaker or writers experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式
7、，情感，语言功能等。Textual function: to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.组篇功能指组成书面或或口头的语篇，这些语篇内部连贯，并适用于所用的特定场景。1.6 what is linguistics:The scientific study of language1.9 important distinctions i
8、n linguisticsDescriptive：aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use . describe how things arePrescriptive: 规范性aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, to tell people what they should say and what they should not saySynchronic: the description of
9、a language at some point of time Diachronic: the description of a language at a period of time Speech：is prior to writing , and it plays a more important role in terms of informationWriting: should be taught and learned in schoolsLangue: an abstract linguistic system shared by all members of speech
10、communityParole: the realization of langue in actual useCompetence：the ideal userss knowledge of his rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Traditional grammar: is prescriptive and tend to emphasize the importance of written wordModern
11、grammar: descriptive, regard spoken language as primary, not the written.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics: the study of speech sounds, the production, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are us
12、ed to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It studies sound patterns, how sounds are combined together.The study od speech sounds is divided into three main areas,each dealing with one part of the process.1).Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.发音语音学2).Acoustic
13、 phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds声学语音学3).Perceptual or auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.听觉语音学2.3 phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds that we hear and produce during linguistic communicat
14、ion are all phones. Individual sounds as they occur in speech.Phoneme：the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. is a phonological unit; it is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain pho
15、netic context.Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called allophone 2.4 consonantsConsonants: are speech sounds where obstruction of airstream is blocked somewhere in the mouth or throat to differ
16、ent degrees, voiced or voiceless.Vowels: are speech sounds which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords, too. no obstruction, voiced2.5 suprasegmental featuresThe phonetic features that occur ab
17、ove the level of the segments are called suprasegmental featuresSyllable: a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.The syllable structureStress: it refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable1) at the word level: the location of stress in eng
18、lish distinguishes meaning2) At the sentence level: the relative force given to the components of a sentence.Tone: pitch variation, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in
19、 isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.补充：1.Sequential rules: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language2.phonemic contrast: if they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonetic contrast单个音的关系，属于不同的phoneme Complementary distribution: the
20、 allophones are said to be in complementary distribution变体之间是互补的关系Minimal pair：音串 eg: kill till bill willChapter 3 Lexicon 词典3.1.3 closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class : is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and others.Open
21、-class: is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.3.2 the formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphologyMorpheme : the minimal units of meaning. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.Morphology: the part of he grammar that is concerned with word
22、formation and word structure. The systematic study of morpheme3.2.2 types of morpheme1) free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one2)root: the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its mea
23、ning. 词根 Affix: a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. 词缀 Stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 3)inflectional affix(inflectional morpheme
24、): 屈折词素 less productive than derivational morpheme , they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme词位, such as friends, boys; do not change the word class of the word they attach to; are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, 给的单词添加词缀或根据语言的语法规则以其他方式改变词形的过程，the process of adding an a
25、ffix to a word or changing it in some way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.Derivational affix(Derivational morpheme): 派生词素 very productive in making new words, such as recite-recitation; change the lexical meaning; both be prefixes and suffixes,such as online, suburban, slaver, te
26、acher.将词缀加入其他单词或词素以构成新词的方法 the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.3.2.3 inflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, aspect, etc Word formation: the process of how words are formed. Can be further divided into t
27、wo sub-types1) compound(compositional type): those words that consist of ore than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, paperbag2) derivation(derivational type): shows a relationship between roots and affixes. Such as unconscious, nati
28、onal; can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged 3.2.4Sememe: the smallest component of meaningMorpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammarPhoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of soundAllomorph: different forms of a morpheme3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change p
29、roperCoinage(invention): many new lexical items are cioned outright to fit some purposes; come directly from technological and economic activities. Such as kodak, ylon, cokeClipped word(abbreviation): some words are the abbreviations of longer words or phrases. Such as exam-examination, fridge-refri
30、dgeratorBlending: some words are formed by combining some part of words.Such as smog-smoke fog, brunch-lunch breakfastAcronyms: some words are the initial part of several words. Such as CEOBack-formation: an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by delecting an im
31、agined affix from a longer form already in the language. Such as gangling-gangle, editor-editAnalogical creation: the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some english verbs.Borrowing: when two culture come to contact, the word may be borrowed from one country to an
32、other one. Such as testa, coconut, tea3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change1)morphological change2)syntactical change3.3.3 semantic change1) broadening: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. Holiday2) arrowing: the original meaning of a
33、word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. Meat3) meaning shift: marshal 马夫-元帅4) class shift: 5) folk etymology: the change of the from of a word od phrase.3.3.4 phonological change: changes in sound leading to changes in form1)loss: refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a pho
34、neme in the phonological system2) addition: sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence.Strike-sutoraiki3) metathesis: a process involving a change in the sequence of soundsBird-brid3) assimilation: 同化3.3.5 orthographic change:Vp-up sunne-sun sate-satChapter 4 From word to textSyntax: th
35、e study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences4.1 syntactic relations4.1.1 positional relation: sequential arrangement of words in a language Syntagmatic relation: (F de Saussure)横组合关系 Horizonal relation Chain relation4.1.2 relation of substitutab
36、ility1)the relationship that linguistic units have with others that could be substituted for them in the sentenceSaussure: associative relations(联想关系)Hjemslev: paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系)Vertical/choice relations(垂直选择关系)4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence: the words of different sets of clauses may pe
37、rmit , or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 grammatical construction: any syntactic constructExternal syntax of a construction: the property of the construction as a wh
38、oleInternal syntax of a construction: a description of the constructionss make-up4.2.1 immediate constituentsConstituents: a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Immediate constituent analysis: IC analysis, proposed by Ameri
39、can structuralist. The goal and consequence of IC analysis is to analyze a linguistic expression into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.4.2.3 endocentric and exocentric constructions4.2.3.1 endocentric: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its
40、constituents. There is definable center or head.These two oldest stone bridgesWill be leavingVery late Exocentric: the opposite of endocentric. Refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, no definable center or headThe
41、boy smiledHe hid behind the doorHe kicked the ballJohn seemed angry4.2.4 coordination and subordinationCoordinate construction: 并列结构，more than one headGirls and boys came, ate and leftDown the stairs and out the door beautiful and expensiveJane loves jim and jim loves janeSubordinate construction: o
42、ne headThe three small children the book left on the shelfWill have been leaving hot beyond enduranceComplement clause: 补足语I do not think you are rightAdjunct or adverbial clause: 状语从句He cleaned the blackboard before I read the noteRelative clause: 定语从句The man I love must be responsible4.3 syntactic
43、 function: shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is usedSubject: 主语Predicate:谓语Object:宾语4.3.4 the relation between classes and functionsA class item can perform several functionsA function can be fulfilled by several classes4.4 categor
44、y: refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense. Eg: noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, etc, more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units. The category of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for exa
45、mple, aspect, voice, etc;4.4.1 number: mostly a category of noun and pronounDog-dogs I wish-he wishes4.4.2 gender: mostly a category of noun and pronounActor-actress waiter-waitress4.4.3 case: a grammatical category that shows the function of the noun or noun phrase in a sentence.4.4.4 agreement: th
46、e requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories4.5 phrase：短语 Clause: 从句Dependent clause从属从句: because I was late, they went without meIndependent clause独立子句: I love you and you love meFinite clause: 限定性从句Non-finite
47、 clause：非限定性从句 Sentence: 句子Simple sentence: 只有一个谓语Compound sentence: 复合句、并列句Complex sentence: 复杂句4.6 recursiveness递归性Coordination并列关系 and subordination主从关系Conjoining合并 : refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined to another, and but orEmbedding嵌入: refers to the means by which
48、 one clause is included in a sentence, eg：the man I love must be responsibleHypotactic 主从结构，从属关系and paratactic并列的4.7 beyond the sentenceText linguistics: 篇章语言学Discourse analysis: 话语分析4.7.1 sentential connection:Hypotactic relations: 从属关系I dont like the party. So I wont take part in itParatactic relations: 并列关系The door is open.4.7.2 cohesion衔接一种语义上的概念，衔接是“存