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1、新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommuni
2、cation.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish itfrom any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递arbitrarinessThere is no
3、 logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and itmakes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressionsProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.DualityLanguage is a system, whi
4、ch consists of two sets of structures ,or twolevels.DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker.Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to betaught and learned the details of any language system.
5、this showed thatlanguage is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born withthe capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of
6、this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe stu
7、dy of a given language at a given time.9.语言langueThe abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speechcommunity.10.言语paroleThe realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what theyshould say and what should not say.1
8、2.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actuallyuse.二、知识点1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, its a social activity carried outin a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure
9、:Langue和parole的区别U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomskyin1950针对Saussures langueparole提出Competence和performance曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarilyproduced symbols.Hall-language is the instituti
10、on whereby humans communicate andinteract with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditoryarbitrary symbols.Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences,each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles
11、 Hockett提出了语言的识别特征design features3.the word language preceded by the zero-article ,it implies thatlinguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,whatthe linguists has to do first if to study langua
12、ge facts.5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so itshardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used inlanguages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what doe
13、s each study?Phonetics-its defined as the study of the phonic medium of language,its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctivesounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology-Its
14、a branch of a grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structureof a language.Semantics-Its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics-the study of meaning in cont
15、ext of words.Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the workingof the mind.Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theoriesto language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitra
16、ry?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween the sounds that people use and the objects to which these soundsrefer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same objectis a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, its only our
17、tacitagreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innaterelationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose byany other name would smell as sweet.3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistic
18、s is descriptive, its investigations are based on authenticand mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is
19、mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-daylanguage. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied,it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point ofview.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistic
20、s, speech or writings?Speech enjoys for the following reasons:Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than inwriting.speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussures distinction between langue and paro
21、le similar toChomskys ?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstractlanguage system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to singleout the language system for serious studyTwo linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view oflanguage, Chomsky looks a
22、t language from a psychological point of view,competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6.the distinction between langue and parole?langue is abstract, relatively stable parole is concrete, varies fromperson to person, from situation to situation.1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisti
23、cs is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Itstudies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication
24、, iscalled phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication iscalled phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsare called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesis called syntax（句法学）
25、The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is calledpsycho-linguistics. （心理
26、语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generallyknown as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching offoreign and second
27、 language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics,（数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study des
28、cribes and analyzes the language people actuallyuse, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell peoplewhat they should say and what they should not say, it is said to beprescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammaris prescriptive while
29、modern linguistics is descriptive. The task oflinguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use,whether it is correct or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through t
30、ime is a diachronicstudy. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modernlinguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not thewritten form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writin
31、g; 2. There are stillmany languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function,the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than thewritten, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinc
32、tion between langueand parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue inactual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspectof language for serious study.
33、He believes what linguists should do is toabstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing theactual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines compete
34、nce as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of hislanguage, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge inlinguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is todiscover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology一、定义1.宽式音标Broad transcriptionThe transcription of
35、 speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音VoicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through withoutcausing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are calledvoice
36、less sounds.4.浊音VoicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voicedsounds.5.元音VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very closetogether and the air stream passes through the vocal tract withoutobstruction are called vowels.6.辅音ConsonantsThe sounds in
37、 the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7.音位PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phoneticfeatures.8.音位变体AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in differentenvironments ar
38、e called the allophones of that phoneme.9.音素phoneA phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning,its a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10.最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same plac
39、e in the strings, the two words aresaid to form a minimal pair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment arecalled suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features includestress ,intonation and tone.12.互补分布complementary distribution P35Two allopho
40、nes of the same phoneme are said to be in complementarydistribution.13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in humancommunication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonicmedium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音stopsWhe
41、n a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, thespeech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passingout again is called a stop or a plosive.they areb p t d k g二、知识点1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have beenover5,000languages
42、in the world, about two thirds of which have not hadwritten form.2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic 组成Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostlydevelopedAuditory phonetics 听觉语音学Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of SpeechPha
43、ryngeal cavity 咽腔Oral . 口腔greatest source of modification of air stream foundhereNasal 鼻腔5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties ofarticulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raisedtowards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used i
44、nArabic and French.6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results inthe pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hardpalate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstructioncreated between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in
45、 thesoundstandd.7.nasal consonants: m / n / 9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.10.Sequential rules例子If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, thecombination should obey the following three rules:the first phoneme must be /s/the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or
46、 /k/the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Risingtone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone三、问答题1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to thestudy of speech sound?Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work
47、to produce thespeech sounds and how they differ.Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches theimportant conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the waysound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。2.how are the English cons