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1、2. Meaningful practice1.Mechanical practice:Teaching grammarGrammar teaching depends on certain variables(learner and ins t ructional ) in the language teaching/learning contextGrammar presentation methods-deductive method: relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparingteaching procedure:teacherexampl
2、es on the board,teacherexplanations of the rules (in student natives language),studentpracticesapplication of the rules.Advantages:good for selected and motivate students;save time to explain complex rules;increase students confidence in examination.Disadvantages:grammar is taught isolated ly ;littl
3、e attention is paid to meaning;the practice is often mechanical -inductive method: teaching procedure;authentic language presentation(give grammar examples);let students observe,analyse,compare examples;help students induct grammar rules,Advantages:inspire students thinking activities;motivate stude
4、nts learning interests;grammar is taught in context.Disadvantages:the presentation of grammar is more complex and time consumption;grammar is not taught directly;some rules can not be induced easily-guided discovery method: Similar to the inductive method:the students are induced to discover rules b
5、y themselves (similar);the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assisted by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly.(different) Implicit and explicit knowledge:Implicit knowledge refers to knowledge that unconsciously exists in our mind, which we can make use of
6、 automatically without making any effort;Explicit knowledge refers to our conscious knowledge about the language. We can talk about it, analyse it and apply it in conscious ways.Learning and acquiring (second language acquisition theory) The synthesis approaches to grammatical pedagogy:Collocational
7、 : grammar should be built on collocational relations between individual lexical items and their subcategories.Constructive : one s knowledge of grammar is built bit by bit, which closely model the way language is learned and used.Contextual : Elements and structures are taught in relation to their
8、context. Syntactic and lexical choices are explicitly related to pragmatic ones, and to social and cultural contexts.Contrastive: grammar involves drawing the learner attentions to contrast the differences between the target language and other language.Grammar practice:Pre-learning;Volume and repeti
9、tion:Success-orientation.Heterogeneity .Teacher assistance.Interestactivities that are aimed at form accuracy.By doing mechanical practice,students pay repeated attention to a keyelement in a structure.form of practice:Substitution and transformation drillsthe focus is on the production, comprehensi
10、on or exchange of meaning though the students“ keep athe way newly learned structures are used in the process.3.Using prompts for practice:The prompts can be pictures, mimes, tables, charts or key words, etc.A good presentation should include both oral and written and form and meaningVisual material
11、s can aid comprehensionIt s the teacher s involvement and his or her ability to personalise teaching and make activities engaging that often promotes successful learning.Teaching vocabularyThe first question need to know is what does knowing a word involve.A word:knowing its pronunciation and stress
12、; spelling and grammatical properties; meaning; how and when to use it to express the intended meaning (freestanding and bound morphine)Vocabulary learning involves ate least two aspects of meaning: the understanding of its denotative and connotative meaning; and understanding the sense relations am
13、ong wordsDenotative meaning of a word or a lexical item refers to those words that we use to label things as regards real objectsConnotative meaning of a word refers to the attitudes or semotionofalanguage user in choosing a word and theinfluence of these on the listener or reader interpretations of
14、 the word. Thiswords that may express a positive ornegative attitude or subtle feelings toward something.Collocations refers to words that co-occur with high frequency and have been accepted as ways for the use of words. It is believed thatteaching word collocations is a more effective way than just
15、 teaching one single word at a time.Synonyms refer to items that mean the same, or nearly the same.Antonyms refer to items that mean the opposite of a word.Hyponyms refer to words which can be grouped together under the same superordinate conceptReceptive and Productive vocabularyPassive vocabulary:
16、 the words they know.Active vocabulary: the words they useSo the job for the teacher is to guide the students to those words which willhelp them to add to their active vocabularies, and todistinguish those words from the much larger number of passive items. At the beginning of language learning, all
17、 the words which are taught must be acquired for active use, later, at intermediate and advanced levels, most of the words students meet will only be needed for passive use.Ways of consolidating vocabulary:labelling,spot the difference,descibe and draw,play a game,use word series,word bingo,word ass
18、ociation,find a synonyms and antonym,categories,using word net-work,using the Internet resources for some ideasDevelopingvocabulary buildingstrategies:review regularly,guess meaning fromcontext, Organize vocabularyeffectively,usingadictionary,manage strategy useTeaching listeningListening problems:l
19、ack of teaching materials,both with print materials and audio or video tapes,lack of equipment insome schools;lack of real-life situations:lack of professional qualified instructorsA number of people have frequently made the point that of the total time an individual is engaged in communication: app
20、roximately 9% is devoted to writing, 16% to reading, 30% to speaking,45% to listeningListening and reading are receptive skills, but listening can be more difficult than reading.Different speakers produce the same sounds in different waysThe listener has little or no control over the speed of the in
21、put of spoken material;Spoken material is often heard only once and in most cases， we cannot go back and listen again as we can when we read; The listener cannot pause to work out the meaning of the heard material as can be done when reading;Speech is more likely to be distorted by the media which t
22、ransmit sounds or background noise that can make it difficult to hear clearly; The listener sometimes has to deal simultaneously with another task while listening, such as formal note-taking, writing down directions or messages from telephone calls, or operating while listening to instructions.Chara
23、cteristics of the listening process,formal or informal?rehearsed or non-rehearsed?can the listener interact withthe speaker or not?Listening characteristics:Spontaneity,Context,visual clues,listener s response,speakert s adjustmeListening purpose:for social reasons,to obtain and exchange information
24、Principles and models of teaching listeningFocus on process:(they have to hear what is being said,they have to pay attention and construct a meaningful message in their mind byrelating what they hear to what they already know;it s also possible to hear people talking without paying attention;wethata
25、lsoif knowwe don t have enough previous knowledge of what is being said,it s more difficult to make sense of what is said)Combine listening with other skills;Focus on the comprehension of meaning;Grade difficulty level appropriatelyDesigning listening activity:give a clear purpose, a specific task,a
26、n appropriate context for doing themBottom-upmodel: Listening comprehension is believed to start withsoundand meaning recognitions.Inother words, weuseinformation in the speech itself to try to comprehend the meaning Listeners construct meaning of what theysoundhearbasedthey on thehear.Top-downmodel
27、:listening for gist and making use ofthe contextualclues and background knowledge toconstruct meaningareemphasised.In other words,listening comprehension involves knowledge that a listener brings to a text,sometimes calledinformation,as opposed to the informat ion that is availablewithin the textits
28、elfInsuch a case,listeners can understand better iftheyknow something about the speaker,the setting,the topic and the purpose of the talk.prior knowledge or schematic knowledge mental frameworks for various things and experience we hold in our long-term memorypredicting,setting the scene,listening f
29、or the gist and specific informationPre-listening activities: aim to motivate students,to activate their prior knowledge,and to teach key words or key sentences to thestudents before listening beginsWhile-listening:no specific responses,listen and tick,listenand sequence,listen and act,listen and dr
30、aw,listen and fill,listenand takenotesPost-listening: multiple-choicequestions,answeringquestions,note-takingandgap-fillingreconstruction analysis and correction)Integrate listening with the practice of other language skills,role play,debate,discussion,writing back,dictogloss(preparationdictationTea
31、ching speakingSpeech characteristic:spontaneous,full of false starts repetitions incomplete sentences short phrasestime-constraintspoken languages features:Using less complex syntax;Taking short cuts,(incomplete sentences);Using fixed conventional phrases/ chunks. Using devices such as fillers, hesi
32、tation device to give time to think before speaking.Both learners and teachers need to learn to accept repetitions,rephrase,hesitations,incomplete sentences,fillers or pauses.this doesn t meanwe don t encourage fluent speaking.In training students speaking skills,features of natural speech should be
33、 accepted.this doesnhave implication for teaching speaking but also for assessing speaking.Encourage students to speak up is the first and most important taskPrinciples:Balancingaccuracy-basedwith fluency-based practices,Contextualising practice, Personalising practice,Building upconfidence, Maximis
34、ing meaningful interactions, Helping students develop speaking strategiesDesigning speaking tasks:meaningfulmotivationlinguistically appropriatecognitively challengeMaximum foreign talkeven participationhigh motivationright language levelPre-communicativeactivities :structural,quasi-communicativeCom
35、municative activities :Functional communicativeandSocialinteractionRole-play :perform in different moods,change different role relationship,actual word can be varied,make the dialogue longerLearners should be helped move from form to using what is learned in meaningful communication The problem is n
36、ot having nothing to say but lacking the opportunity to say itTeaching readingReading aloud and silent reading:Reading aloud cannot replace silent reading as it involves only the skills of pronunciation and intonation.Real reading ability re-quires the reading skills of skimming, scanning, predictin
37、gEffective reading:clear purpose in reading; read silently; read phrase by phrase,rather than word by word; concentrate on the important bits,skim the rest,and skip the insignificant parts; use different speeds and strategies for different reading tasks; perceive the information in the target langua
38、ge rather than mentally translate; guess the meaning of new words from the context,or ignore them; use background information to help understand the text.Reading comprehension means extracting the relevant information from the text as efficiently as possible,connecting the information fromwritten me
39、ssage with one s own knowledge to arrive at an understanding (construction of meaning from printed or written mge)ssaTwo broad levels in reading:1) a recognition task of perceiving visual signals from the printed page through the eyes; 2) a cognitive task of interpreting the visual information,relat
40、ing the receive information with readerVocabulary role:efficientreading begins with a lightening-likeautomatic recognition of word.this initial process ofaccurate,rapid andautomatic recognition ofvocabularyfrees one smind to use other resources(reasoning abilities,knowledge about topic)to constructm
41、eaningSight vocabulary:you can recognise with both sounds and meanings without special effort from your brainFluent reading depends on anadequate sight vocabulary,a general knowledge about the targetlanguage, someknowledge about the topic, wide knowledge about the world and enough knowledge about te
42、xt types.Teaching model:bottom-up modeltop-down modelinteractive modelPre-reading:pooling existing knowledge about the topic;predicting the contents of the text,skimming and scanning the text or parts of the text for certain purpose;learning key words and structures(predicting setting the scene skim
43、ming scanning)While reading : Information presented in plain text form is not facilitative for information retentionThe way to transfer information from one form to another is called a transition device Reading comprehension questionsQuestions for literal comprehension. directly and explicitly avail
44、able in the text.Usually answered in the words of the text itself. Questions involving reorganization or reinterpretation. obtain literal information from various parts and put it to-gether or reinterpretQuestions for inferences. This type of questions require students to consider what is implied bu
45、t not explicitly stated.Questions for evaluation or appreciation. most sophisticated ques-tions which involve making a judgment about the text in terms ofwhat the writer is trying to convey.Questions for personal response. The answers to these questions depend most on the reader s reaction to the co
46、ntent of the text.Post-reading:discussion questions,reproducing the text,role play,gap-filling,discussion,retelling,writingThe teaching of reading should focus on developing students readingskills and strategies and on maintaining students motionvat forreadingTeaching writingWriting purpose:get thin
47、gs done and to form;maintain social relationships;give a voice for shy students;less threatening for anxious students as it gives them to think about their meaning and purpose;raise awareness of how language worksA communicative approach to writing:Writing for learningand ”“ writing for communication”Sense of authenticity and audiencemotivation for writingpurpose for writingproper procedures for writingProble