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1、Action Research and the Professional Learning of TeachersA Paper presented at the Qattan Foundation, PalestineJanuary 2001Jean McNiffAction research is acknowledged worldwide as a powerful form of learning. It is used in educational settings across the professions: in industry, hospitals, local gove
2、rnment, and other workplaces (see for example Atweh et al., 1996; Eden and Huxham, 1999; McNiff et al., 2000). Perhaps it is most visible in education, where its popularity became prominent, particularly with reference to the professional learning of teachers. The situation is that today, a few shor
3、t years since the rise to prominence of action research in the 1980s, it is recognised as a rigorous research methodology which can greatly enhance the professional learning of teachers as they study their own practice, in a way that the quality of learning of students in classrooms may be improved.
4、 Zeichner (1998) observes that self study in the teacher education movement has probably been the most significant development ever in the field.While action research is recognised universally, it is still not accepted by some as a rigorous form of research. Schn (1995), speaking about the topology
5、of professional landscapes, says that there is a high ground of abstract theorising, and a swampy lowlands of practical everyday work. Research undertaken on the high ground is regarded as legitimate, and the knowledge it generates is regarded as valid theory, while work undertaken in the lowlands i
6、s often perceived as what we do in any case, and the knowledge generated is regarded as common sense. He also says that introducing the new scholarship of reflective practice into corporations and institutions of higher education can mean becoming involved in an epistemological battle in Schns words
7、, this is a battle of snails because it happens so slowly. The idea of a battle of snails has not been my experience over recent years, where I have learnt in my work as a professional educator that such battles often mean fighting vigorously for peoples rights to have their practical workplace know
8、ledge valued, and to create their own identities. In the broader theatres of life, such epistemological battles mean fighting for ideas, work, and even lives.I would like today to focus on two issues. The first is to do with how the professional learning of teachers can contribute to a body of educa
9、tional theory which has the values of care and responsibility as main ethical principles. The second is to do with how the idea of educational theory itself needs to be reconceptualised as a caring and responsible practice, a form of praxis, whose validity may be judged in terms of the values practi
10、tioners bring to their work. This view is quite different from a traditional view of theory as an abstract body of knowledge which may be applied to practice. Instead, it regards theory as a living, developmental process of making sense of what we do with the intent of improving personal and social
11、living through education.Traditional views of professional educationI imagine, like me, that you have experienced as part of your professional education (what was known in the United Kingdom until quite recently as teacher training), the situation in which an authorised knower told you what to do. I
12、 remember the experience of my initial teacher training in the 1960s when my university-based supervisor observed my practice teaching, critiqued it, offered guidance, and also suggested some useful books I might read to put me on the right track.This model of teacher education was rooted in an epis
13、temology which held that a concrete body of knowledge existed out there, separate from people, but which could be applied to teachers practices. The epistemology informs traditional kinds of theory which maintain that practice may be described and explained as an objective phenomenon. It also inform
14、s traditional views of professional education, including teacher education and management education, that the way to be a competent professional is to study the theory of education or management and to apply the theory to practice. These views, although vehemently critiqued in recent years, continue
15、 to inform a good deal of professional education today. Such an approach, however, does not require a teacher or manager to demonstrate that they have improved the quality of educational or workplace experience for anyone anywhere (see Whitehead, 1998; Fox, 1997), an oversight which, according to so
16、me (for example Morgan, 1997), potentially brings into disrepute the epistemological base and practice of such traditional forms of professional education. If we are serious about educational ideas, if we believe that our work as educators has implications for students learning such that they can ma
17、ke choices about creating the kinds of societies they wish to live in, we have to recognise that the quality of teaching must be judged in terms of how it impacts on student learning (Huberman, 1992). Unless teacher education is assessed in terms of how it influences student learning for benefit, it
18、 can become an empty exercise, the study and application of a set of techniques which relegates teachers to the status of skilled technicians, rather than committed education professionals whose work constitutes a value-laden practice.I want to suggest, with others (such as Hargreaves, 1996; Lomax,
19、1999; Whitehead, 1998) that teaching be regarded as a research-based profession. There are several implications in this idea, not the least being that a profession means personal and professional accountability to a variety of stakeholders, and that research means offering justification for doing th
20、e things one is doing. If we put the two ideas together, we arrive at a position that professionalism means accounting to those for whom we are responsible that we are acting in their best interests, and this means in turn that we have to produce evidence to justify our attitudes and actions. If tea
21、ching is to claim that it is a research-based profession (see the Teacher Training Agency, 1998; Government of Ireland, 1995), teachers must be prepared to show how and why their practice is to be judged as good practice, and produce evidence to show that they have influenced the quality of educatio
22、nal experience for the people in their care.The idea of research-based professionalism, for me, begins with the question, How do I improve my practice? (Whitehead, 1989). The question is addressed and researched via a dialectical process of investigating ones practice, in company with others a proce
23、ss of critical self-study.The nature of self study as disciplined enquiryI agree with the idea of Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) that action enquiries begin with a sense that something needs doing about a particular situation. I also agree with the more refined position of Whitehead (1989) who places t
24、he living I at the centre of educational enquiries. I is not an abstract pronoun. I am a real-life flesh and blood person. Furthermore, I often exist as a living contradiction, in that I say I believe in one thing but do another. I might for example believe in the idea of social justice, but often f
25、ind myself living in ways that deny other peoples rights to justice. I might believe in childrens rights to speak and be heard, but deny them the opportunity of doing so.For I to move away from the situation of being a living contradiction, I need to find ways in which I can live my values in my pra
26、ctice. This will inevitably involve asking, How do I improve what I am doing? It also provides a starting point to a methodological approach to educational enquiry, which can take the following form:I experience a concern when my values are not being fully lived in my practice.I imagine a way forwar
27、d and develop an action plan.I act, and gather data that will enable me to judge the effectiveness of my actions for living my values more fully.I evaluate my actions.I modify my concerns, plans and actions in the light of my evaluations.The tension that moves the enquiry forward is focused on the d
28、esire to live values more fully in the face of the experience of their denial in practice (Whitehead, 1999)This methodological approach can then be developed as an action plan, which can take the form:What is my concern?Why am I concerned?What do I think I can do about the situation?What will I do?H
29、ow will I show whether I am influencing the situation for good?How will I produce evidence of my influence?How will I ensure that any claims I make are reasonably fair and accurate?What will I do then?(Whitehead, 1989; see also McNiff, Lomax and Whitehead, 1996)For me, a crucial aspect which shows t
30、he methodological and epistemological rigour of such an action plan is the generation of solid evidence to show the legitimacy of claims that one has improved ones practice for others educational benefit. Without validated evidence to support it, such a claim could rightly be challenged as personal
31、opinion or hearsay.Research involves the gathering of data to provide information about the object of enquiry. In action research, the object of enquiry is ones own practice, as it influences the quality of educational experience of others. The self studies the self. Therefore it is important to gat
32、her data about ones own practice, and the practices of others with whom one is working. This could be parents, students, colleagues, or others in the particular research setting.Turning data into evidence involves establishing criteria, or standards of judgement, to check whether the practice is hav
33、ing the hoped-for influence. In terms of the methodology outlined above, is the modification of ones practice actually influencing the situation so that ones educational values are lived in practice? Can we show, for example, that students can make choices, or can exercise their voice, or take respo
34、nsibility for their own learning? If it is possible to show that the quality of educational experience has been improved for students, one could with justification claim legitimate status as a professional who was demonstrating through research that one was engaging in caring and responsible practic
35、e for the people in ones care.The issue of how the evidence is judged and legitimated depends on what kinds of criteria are used and how their choice is justified. In traditional forms, the criteria take the form of checklists which are set by policy makers (and let us not forget that policy makers
36、are often civil servants, not teachers, and the values they bring with them to their work tend to be bureaucratic rather than educational). I am reminded of a conversation I had once with a senior manager who said, I have just scored 100% on a management questionnaire, so that means I am a good mana
37、ger. Such naivet might seem surprising, yet this is precisely the basis on which professional practice is often judged. Prospective educational managers have to undergo psychometric testing; teachers in the United Kingdom have to demonstrate that they can perform to 63 identified competencies (Teach
38、er Training Agency, 1998). No one seems to worry about whether anyone benefits educationally. The values base of practice is systematically factored out. Human concern and its consequences, however, cannot be judged by performance indicators.In the new scholarship the criteria which are used to asse
39、ss professional practice are related to the values one brings to ones work. Educators live by educational values, and encourage their realisation in educational settings. Educational values would include independence and freedom of mind and action, and educational settings would be contexts where pe
40、ople come together in free association and on an equal footing to achieve common goals (Chomsky, 1996). The evidence generated by action enquiries would involve showing how all participants did demonstrate independence and freedom of mind and action, and could create settings that may be characteris
41、ed as educational.The process of self study as disciplined enquiryI want to touch on what I consider a fundamental issue in teacher education, and that is the quality of care which has to underpin educative relationships. In my view, unless teaching is characterised by care, it remains a job in whic
42、h excellence can be rightly judged in terms of performance indicators, rather than a profession in which excellence has to be judged in terms of human values. Having the courage to care (Noddings, 1992) is however a matter of personal choice, and can often be a difficult choice to make.In my doctora
43、l studies I undertook my action research into my practice as a teacher of personal and social education in a secondary school. I wanted to explain my idea that personal and social education was not a concrete subject matter within a curriculum, but was a relational process which manifested as partic
44、ular attitudes and behaviours. This focus led me to study the work of Stenhouse (1975), and, later, Elliott (1998), both of whom explain the difference between objectives- and process-oriented curricula. I came over time to theorise curriculum as the development of learning through what Dewey (1916)
45、 calls educative relationships, a form of danger-free living and communication in which all parties may exercise their independence and freedom of mind and action in a mutually respectful manner. My dilemma was then, and remains, how you get people to care in the first place so that they do develop
46、tolerance and respect for others, so that they can enjoy educative relationships. I have no universal answer, but I have come closer to understanding the conditions which influence people, and my understanding has grown out of the study of my own practice in recent years (McNiff, 2000b). As a profes
47、sional educator I have experienced for myself how often problematic life circumstances can leave one with choices about whether to carry on or give in in the face of hostility to ones ideas, and I have supported teachers who also have had to make such choices. I also know how tempting it is to give
48、in to institutional pressure to conform, and how difficult it is to choose whether to fight on.These are choices each one of us has to make. They are not impossible and not easy. Each one of us, as Chomsky notes (1996), can choose whether to be an aristocrat or a democrat. Each one of us has to acce
49、pt the responsibility of deciding the kinds of relationships we wish to enjoy with others, whether educative or destructive.What is my justification for holding these views?Some researchers such as Susan Noffke (1997) claim that action research may be a potentially powerful form of personal professional development, but are sceptical of the extent to which it can influence wider organisational systems (see