lecture2Reviewofcost.ppt

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1、1,Topic 2: Firms and Costs,Williamson的交易成本理论,交易成本及决定因素: 交易频率 不确定性 资产专用性 举例:驯养理论、教学与科研、 婚姻,小王子说,“什么叫驯养呢?” , 狐狸说,“对我来说,你还只是一个小男孩,就像其他千万个小男孩一样。我不需要你。你也同样用不着我。对你来说,我也不过是一只狐狸,和其他千万只狐狸一样。但是,如果你驯养了我,我们就互相不可缺少了。对我来说,你就是世界上唯一的了;我对你来说,也是世界上唯一的了。”,费墨:“这个世界上的事物都存在一种驯养和被驯养的关系,你驯养了一只小狗,你以为自己驯养了它吧,实际上在这个驯养的过程当中,你自

2、己也被驯养了,双方熟悉到一定程度,就最终变成一种非理性的亲密关系。这一亲密意味着什么?两人不讲理了,没有道理可讲啦。”,现代企业结构,所有权模式: 个人业主制 合伙制 公司制: 所有权与控制权的分离; 所有者承担有限责任,合伙企业法: 38.合伙企业对其债务,应先以其全部财产进行清偿。 39.合伙企业不能清偿到期债务的,合伙人承担无限连带责任。,成本,Question 完全竞争的市场上,企业为什么不能获得正利润吗?,关键概念,何为成本? 会计成本与经济(机会)成本 例子:猫王(Elvis Presley) 问:为什么发明经济成本?,(经济)成本: 最高代价,Example:,为什么周末理发店的

3、生意特别好?,Example:机会成本在国际贸易中的应用比较优势理论,Example4:机会成本在国际贸易中的应用比较优势理论,Economic Rent经济租金,Economic Rent 经济租金 The difference between what firms are willing to pay for an input less the minimum amount necessary to obtain it. 简单定义:即使扣除该部分,企业仍然会供给,经济租金 Economic Rent,为什么叫做“经济租”? 答:与地租类似,不管收不收地租,你的供给是不变的。所以地租会被地主

4、拿走。房租会被房东拿走。 学校卖炒菜的饭馆每年赚15万会计利润,其中的5万为正常利润(饭店老板的机会成本)。剩下的10万为经济租。 现在学校收的租金为10万。 于是经济利润变成0。 即经济租为10万,但经济利润为0 这10万不管学校收不收,饭馆都会经营。,经济租金的来源,最早源自地租的概念 亚当斯密(1776)认为,土地是上天赐予的,被强权者占为己有。地主不用生产也有收入,如果没有这项收入,土地依然存在。 李嘉图(1817)把收入分为三部分:工资、利润与租金。认为地租是多余的,没有地租收入,土地的供应量不变。,经济租金的来源,马歇尔(1920):短期内任何收入变动而供应不变的收入。 最后一位:

5、罗宾逊夫人(1933):从微观的角度而言,因为个人有选择,所以没有租金可言,因为个人不选A还可以选B; 但从全社会的角度来看,所有的收入都是租金。 猫王的例子,经济租金的来源:猫王的例子,猫王以前是个货车驾驶员,工作闲暇之余,他试唱,被发现了,一举成名。 传统的看法:即使猫王的收入大幅下降了,他还是继续做明星,不会做货车驾驶员。因此,猫王的大部分收入是租金。 夫人的看法:从个人的角度看,猫王东边不唱西边,东家的收入是西边的成本,因此,机会所在皆是,皆成本也,租金从何而来。从社会的角度看,大部分收入是租金(皆租金也)。,经济租金的概念:一统江湖,经济租金是漠视了某些资源使用的可变选择的成本。 例

6、1:如果把电视的经营权给我,卖电视的收入减少了,我依然会卖,因此,是租金; 但是,如果我把电视的经营权转让给别人也可以赚一样的钱,卖出之价可看做成本。,Types of Costs 注意:经济学中最混乱的概念!,沉没成本(Sunk Costs):一旦付出便无法收回。 可避免成本(Avoidable Costs) =机会成本:生产停止就不需要花费的成本,注意:可避免成本可能既包括可别成本,也包括固定成本(如果固定投资的成本是可收回的),16,Types of Costs 注意:经济学中最混乱的概念!,固定成本(Fixed Costs): costs that do not vary with o

7、utput (e.g. fixed wages given to employees, license contract, rental fee) incurred every period. 如:试产成本 可变成本(Variable Costs): Costs that vary with the level of output, q. VC(q). Total Costs (C) = F + VC Marginal cost 边际成本 :,固定成本在长期可以调整,从而会影响企业决策;而沉没成本无法收回,从而不影响企业决策。,17,Types of Costs,Average Cost Av

8、erage Variable Cost : Average Fixed Cost : AVC and AFC cannot exceed AC MC could be higher or lower than AC.,18,Cost Curves: An Illustration,$,Quantity,AC,MC,Typical average and marginal cost curves,Relationship between AC and MC,If MC AC then AC is falling,If MC AC then AC is rising,MC = AC at the

9、minimum of the AC curve,FC,AC starts increasing as capacity constraints becomes binding. U-shape implies cost disadvantage for very small and very large firms Unique optimum size for a firm,19,Marginal & Average Cost Functions,If MC AC then AC is falling,If MC AC then AC is rising,MC = AC at the min

10、imum of the AC curve,20,An Example,q F AFC VC AVC C AC MC 0 100 0 100 1 100 100 10 10 110 110 10 2 100 50 19 9.5 119 59.5 9 3 100 33.3 25 8.3 125 41.7 6 4 100 25 32 8 132 33 7 5 100 20 40 8 140 28 8 6 100 16.7 49 8.2 149 24.8 9 7 100 14.2 60 8.6 160 22.9 11 8 100 12.5 73 9.1 173 21.6 13 9 100 11.1 8

11、8 9.8 188 20.9 15 10 100 10 108 10.8 208 20.8 20,21,$,AC,MC,AVC,Output, q,AFC,Another Illustration,22,Cost Curves: Different Technologies,AC1,Output, q,$,AC2,23,Short-Run vs. Long-Run Cost Curve,Short-Run Cost: In the short-run, a firm cannot vary factors of production without incurring substantial

12、costs. Long-Run Cost: In the long-run, there is enough time to expand such that all factors of production can be varied without incurring substantial costs.,$,Quantity,AC1 Plant 1,AC2 Plant 2,AC3 Plant 3,LRAC,100,24,Economies of Scale-规模经济,Economies of Scale: average cost (AC) falls when output incr

13、eases increasing returns to scale(规模收益递增、规模经济) when MCAC. Constant Returns to Scale(规模收益不变): average cost do not vary with output. Diseconomies of Scale(规模收益递减、规模不经济): average cost rises with output decreasing returns to scale. If a firm enjoys economies of scale at all output levels, then it is eff

14、icient to have one firm to produce the entire market output natural monopoly. Sources of economies of scale: Large fixed setup cost Transportation cost:当当 R&D Division of labor: Henry Ford,$,Quantity,AC,Example:inventories as a fraction of sales shrinks as the firm grows,Random demand and inventorie

15、s,Average sale=1.5; inventory share= 0.5*/1.5=1/3,Example:inventories as a fraction of sales shrinks as the firm grows,Average sale=2.75; inventories share=0.25/2.75=1/11,27,Economies of Scale ,Measure of economies of scale (Scale Economy Index): S1 : Economies of Scale S1 : Diseconomies of Scale S

16、is the inverse of the elasticity of cost with respect to output,28,Multi-product Firms:多产品企业,Most firms produce more than one product examples: Honda produces cars and motorcycles, Microsoft produces Windows operating system and several MS Office. How do we define average cost for this type of firm?

17、 (e.g. produces 2 products) The total cost: C(q1,q2) Marginal cost of products 1 and 2:,29,Economies of Scale (Multiproduct Firm),Measure of economies of scale with multiple products This is by analogy to the single product case. It relies on the implicit assumption that output proportions are fixed

18、.,30,Economies of Scope:范围经济,Definition: A technology exhibits economies of scope if the costs of supplying two products jointly is lower than supplying them separately. 同时生产两种产品的成本分别生产两种产品的成本之和 Firm 1 produces 1 and 2. Firm 2 produces 1. If the costs of producing 1 is smaller for Firm 1 than Firm 2

19、, there are economies of scope.,31,Economies of Scope ,This implies (since C(0,0)=0): Thus, the incremental costs of producing Q2 are lower if you have produced Q1 already. Measure of Economies of Scope: If:,32,Economies of Scope ,Back to our cost example: C(q1, q2) = 10 + 25q1 + 30q2 - 3q1 q2 /2 Th

20、e degree of economies of scope:,Examples:,Disney Corp. The co. has expanded its core business ever since its inception. Originally, it was only an animated movie producer, and now it has become a multi businesses company animated and non animated movies production, TV channel distribution, theme parks, toy and merchandise company, retailing, etc.,

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