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1、第二讲 实验心理学的科学性质,试问任何一位科学家，什么是科学的方法，他会立即显露出一本正经而又眼神诡诈的表情。一本正经，是因为他觉得应该有所交代；而眼神诡诈，是因为他正在盘算如何掩饰无可奉告的事实。若是遭到嘲笑和追问，他可能吞吞吐吐地说上几句“归纳”、“确立自然法则”之类的话，但若真有哪位实验室人员声称其将凭借归纳法来确立自然法则的话，人们就会开始怀疑他是不想保住自己的饭碗了。P. B. Medawar,科学的特征是其研究的方法，而非研究的内容。 实验心理学的主题 例如情绪的心理成分、人们在快餐店的进餐行为、诗歌学习、不同身份个体的人际关系、猫头鹰的捕食行为、新生儿的眼动、人格特征、精神分裂症
2、的病因、逻辑问题解决的大脑机制、平均面孔的吸引力等 怎样和感兴趣的异性搭讪？,“搭讪”的研究,Kleinke，Meeker & Staneski，1986；Cunningham，1988 可爱-轻浮型、无害型和直接型 ”。“你是学生吗？”，和“我有些害羞，但我希望能认识你。” 等级评定 现场测试 女性对可爱-轻浮型的开场白反应消极，对直接或无害的开场白反应积极。而男性的反应比较模糊。,“艺术和艺术家”,Solso（2001） 工具：fMRI 任务：素描几何图形和人脸照片 结果：艺术家和非艺术家在人脸加工时大脑特定部位的血流量都有增加。但艺术家的脑血流活动程度没有非艺术家高 。该大脑部位（右侧顶
3、枕区）只有在被试画人脸时激活，而在画几何图形时没有激活 。艺术家在大脑的右侧额叶区域有更多的活动 。 “艺术家通过想象而非肉眼观察肖像作品”（Solso，2001，p.34）,什么是科学,物理、化学、生物、天文 科学是“一系列由实验和观察得出的相互联系的概念或概念图式，并引导进一步的实验和观察”。 （James Conant，1951）“科学”是发现新的事实和理论以取代旧的事实和理论，正如爱因斯坦的某些理论取代了牛顿的理论。 科学思维的普遍假设是，自然是由法则构成并依法则运行的。,“比萨斜塔”自由落体实验,Aristotle：根据“逻辑”，重的物体的下落速度应当比更轻的物体快。 Galileo
4、 ：根据“观察”，不同重量的物体会以相同的速度落地。 提出假设 观测 可重复性 引出规律（或模型） Galileo的实验可能存在哪些“控制问题”？,科学探究的两个水平,基本观察 要意识到：观察是更大系统的一部分,知识的来源,美C. S.皮尔斯（1877） 权威 注意凝聚 先验 科学方法 强调经验观察 提供帮助程序,好奇心:科学的源泉,事实、理论和推测,Facts:由于能够看到、闻到、听到、尝到或接触到而确定其真实的事物 Theory;对事物存在的可能解释 评估标准：简洁性、准确性和可验证性 重力定律“好的理论” 组织自体干细胞的克隆有待进一步验证 进化论大量数据支持，但仍存在争议 Specul
5、ation:对未知事物的猜测。它既没有足够的数据支持，也无法进行科学的检验。,好奇心:科学的源泉,心理科学,“之所以成为科学乃是因为其目的，而不是结果：如果目的是建立自然特性之间的或多或少的普遍联系，如果对该联系的验证最终归于数据自身，这一主题就是科学。” George C. Homans，1967 基本假设： 行为和思维的真相可以通过科学分析的方法揭示出来。 人的本质是一个系统，一个非常复杂的系统，通过科学实验和对实验结果的理性分析能够理解并解释这一系统。 心理学家为什么总关注心理学的科学性？,科学方法（scientific method）,“科学方法是由一些简单的步骤组成；只要遵循那些步骤
6、，就一定能够获得对本质（或人类本质）的精彩发现。”？ 心理学研究对科学方法的使用基于两个原则 ： 科学观察基于感觉经验。 将感觉的观察组织成知识结构 模型来自于观察，并将在足够完整的情况下成为理论。科学方法的一大宗旨就是对理论进行检验和证伪（可能）。,科学方法的假设,order 孩子在行走之前先爬行，对物体的感知先于认识，饥饿的动物比餍足的动物在获取食物奖励时更积极 determinism 事件是由可知的并且可检验的因素决定的。 避免“迷信解释” （Superstitious causes） Empiricism 基于观察和实验了解某一现象 ParsimonyOccan的剃须刀 简单的解释比复
7、杂的解释（更可能正确）更适用,“占星术”的检验,迷信解释：“用没有逻辑或经验关联的原因解释思想和行动”。 “避免争执；一个富有经验的年长者会给你一个很好的建议。” “适合独处，避免和脾气暴躁的人待在一起；一个远方的客户或爱人会给你打电话，并带给你意外的消息。” 心理学家如何检验“星座解释”的效度？,“早期荷尔蒙与儿童期性别类型玩具偏好”,（Berenbaum和Hines，1992） 尽管社会学习和社会压力必然会影响儿童对玩具的选择，但是否可能存在其它的影响因素 ？ 患过先天性肾上腺皮质增生症（CAH）的女孩，评价其玩“男孩的” 、“女孩的” 和“中性的”玩具的持续时间 结论：早期的荷尔蒙影响对
8、女性的性别玩具偏好有男性化效应,实验和实验设计,experiment ，至少操纵一个变量来研究因果关系 experimental design，即对控制条件的设计,保持你的好奇心！,“单词字母位置对成功句子阅读的作用”,K. Rayner，White，Johnson & Liversedge，2006 一个转发邮件：剑桥的一个研究项目 “Sentences in whcih lettres weer transpsoed(or jubmled up), as in the setnence you are now raeding” 结果:所有的位置调换都导致了更慢的阅读。特别是词头位置的调换使
9、阅读速度最慢，接着是词尾位置调换，然后是单词的中间位置调换。,描述、解释、预测和控制,观察、相关和实验研究 科学解释：经验观察和自我校正是科学方法的重要标志。 理论的两种功能组织和预测也被分别称为描述和解释，通常会引起归纳法与演绎法何者更好的争论。坎特威茨,基础研究和应用研究,科学家-实践家模式 用基础研究的结果来开发应用研究 亚当斯（1972），产品70%源于二三十年前的基础研究 双轨系统（Fishman Howell，1994） Descartes：科学的根本目的是理解事物本质 Bacon：科学应以改进人类生活为己任，科学结果的有用性第一，知识的增长第二,结束语,一个人可以由于各种各样的原
10、因被科学吸引：有生存价值的渴望，有探索新领域的激情，有寻求秩序的希望，以及检验现有知识的动力。库恩（Thomas S. Kuhn） http:/ Questions,Studies have shown that eyewitness testimony is valid and accurate, especially with highly stressful (i.e., memorable) events. False - Eyewitness testimony is notoriously unreliable, particularly when the observer is
11、in a highly aroused state. As of January 7, 2006 172 wrongly convicted prisoners have been released from death row because they were factually innocent of the crime. Most were committed on the basis of eye witness testimony.,25 Questions,We use only about 10% of our brain. False - We use all or our
12、brain all the time. Even small brain lesions can result in significant cognitive impairment. The distributed neuronal cell loss with age amounts to up to 25% of the brain volume and accounts for many effects of cognitive aging.,25 Questions,Someone who learns something when they are drunk will subse
13、quently remember it better when they are drunk than when they are sober. True - State dependent learning demonstrates the importance of the “cognitive environment” in the formation and retrieval of episodic memories. When there is a match between context, retrieval is good.,25 Questions,Studies of d
14、ivided attention have demonstrated that driving while using a cell phone is not impaired. False - Studies show that using a cell phone significantly interferes with driving. In fact, several studies show that you are more impaired when driving and talking on a cell phone than when you are driving dr
15、unk.,25 Questions,Recent evidence supports some of the claims of Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) advocates. False - In controlled “double-blinded” studies, no systematic evidence has been obtained for ESP.,25 Questions,Memory aids do not really improve our memory. False - Mnemonic techniques work. Th
16、ey organize the information, make the material less susceptible to forgetting or interference, and provide a useful retrieval structure.,25 Questions,Backwards messages hidden in music influence our behavior. eslaF - There is no evidence that this information is processed, let alone influences our b
17、ehavior.,25 Questions,Speed reading techniques can dramatically improve reading speed without sacrificing comprehension. False - Human performance is governed by the speed-accuracy tradeoff - Going faster results in lower accuracy. However, good old fashioned practice can improve the efficiency of r
18、eading.,25 Questions,Freuds “free association“ technique tells us something about the organization of memory. True - This is similar to the semantic priming studies with spreading activation. Individual differences can reflect enduring predispositions (or partial patterns of activation) that bias th
19、e semantic network in one way or another.,25 Questions,Information can be stored in long-term memory even if you never attended to it. False - Attention is necessary for the creation of long-term (and short-term) memories. Information that falls outside of attention is lost.,25 Questions,Advertising
20、 using subliminal perception is very effective. False - Effects of subliminal perception are, at best, minimal. There is little evidence that stimuli presented below the observers threshold influence motives, attitudes, beliefs, or choices.,25 Questions,We should try to avoid using heuristics (rules
21、 of thumb) during decision making. False - Heuristics help speed the decision making process and unburden working memory. However, these simplifying rules or short-cuts do create biases in decision making.,25 Questions,There is no basis for the claim that eating carrots will help your night vision F
22、alse - The rods use the photopigment rhodopsin (which is made up of vitamin A, also found in carrots). People with a vitamin A deficiency can have poor night vision which can be corrected by supplemental vitamins.,25 Questions,Infants ability to discriminate between the phonemes of language is actua
23、lly better than that of adults. True - As language develops, infants loose the ability to discriminate or produce phonemes that are not in their language.,25 Questions,There is no limit on how much information can be stored in long-term memory. True - No one has ever filled up long-term memory. Ther
24、e may be limits on what information is initially stored (attentional limitations), but once stored, the memories are permanent (although they may not be accessible).,25 Questions,People who are color blind are missing one or more types of cones in the retina True - Trichromatic theory suggests that
25、normal color vision depends on three cone types with different colors made up by the ratio of activation of these receptors. However, some forms of color vision can also be due to damage to cortical areas.,25 Questions,The arrangement of displays and controls in cars, airplanes, etc. is arbitrary be
26、cause we can learn to use any configuration with practice. False - There are some configurations that result in interference that simply cant be practiced away. It is up to Human Factors professionals to root out these bad design principles.,25 Questions,People are always biased. True - Our expectat
27、ions and memories color the way that we perceive and remember the world. This accounts for many of the individual differences between people.,25 Questions,Practice always improves performance. False - Learning capitalizes on the statistical regularities of the environment. Most of the time there are
28、 consistencies in the environment that facilitate learning, but in some cases there are irregularities or inconsistencies that impede learning.,25 Questions,Our expectations influence our perceptions and memories. True - Expectations and other “top-down” processes play a major role in what we percei
29、ve and remember. Often, differences in what two observers see or remember are due to the effects of top down processing.,25 Questions,The difference between $500 and $1000 is psychologically greater than the difference between $10,500 and $11,000. True - The mental representation of magnitude is com
30、pressed at the high end of the scale. 500 vs. 1000 is a greater psychological difference than 10500 vs. 11000,25 Questions,If someone is blind in one eye, they will have no depth perception. False - There are pictorial cues (e.g., size, interposition, etc) and movement cues that provide depth inform
31、ation. The use of both eyes provides binocular cues - random dot stereograms make use of binocular visual information.,25 Questions,With enough practice it is possible to do two things at the same time as well as doing each thing by itself. True - Under very specific task combinations, people can do
32、 two things (playing piano and reading a novel) as well as either in isolation. This is called “Perfect Timesharing”.,25 Questions,During the movement of the eyes while reading, the processing of visual information is temporarily suppressed. True - This is called saccadic suppression. Not only is th
33、e processing of visual information suppressed, but higher level cognitive thoughts also appear to be put on hold.,25 Questions,It is possible to have a permanent memory that influences your behavior even though you are not consciously aware of that memory. True - The distinction between implicit and
34、 explicit memory suggests that implicit memory is very important to out everyday behavior, even though we may be unaware of these memories.,案例： “空手道技术出现频率的记忆：专家和新手的比较研究”,Bernard G. Bedon & Darlene V. Howard ，1992 作者注 本研究是在D. V. Howard指导下由B. G. Bedon完成的本科研究项目的一部分。我们感谢Caitlin Brune在完成论文过程中所提供的帮助，以及Jef
35、frey Howard对图表制作的帮助。B. G. Bedon现在是马里兰大学（大学园区）心理系的一名研究生，邮编：20742。通讯意见可送至Darlene. V. Howard；地址：华盛顿乔治城大学心理系；邮编：20057； (E-mail：D_howardguvax.binet)。,文献综述 Hasher和Zacks，1979，1984 ，频率编码是自动的，智力或先前相关知识各异的人们对事件发生频率的判断没有准确率差异。 专家对其专业领域知识的回忆要好于新手（Ericsson，Chase和Faloon，1980） 为进一步探究自动频率编码的证据，本实验比较了空手道专家和新手对空手道动作的
36、记忆。 我们预期专家会比新手回忆更多的空手道动作，因为他们已经获得了这一运动的知识结构。但我们还预期，如果频率编码是自动的，这两组在判断动作出现频率时的准确率应当一致。,研究方法 被试间变量（专家或新手） 被试内变量（测验类型、真实呈现频率） 实验材料：自创的武术套路，含20个技术动作 实验程序：指导语观看套路判断频次自由回忆,研究结果 专家组真实频率和判断频率之间的相关.907(n=9,p.0007)， 新手组.909(n=9,p.0007) 专家比新手回忆更多的技术动作，两者差异统计显著t（28）=11.2，p.001。,讨论 与使用其他类型刺激的研究类似（如Hasher和Zacks，1984），对四次以下的频数判断平均数通常与真实频率几乎一致；当真实频率增加后，人们判断时会倾向于低估这一频率。 “逆击”动作完成速度太快，可能影响了被试判断 回忆任务中，避免产生动作名称的能力差异 额外询问是否使用回忆策略,