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1、After completing this unit, you should be able to:,Identify the major constitutes of petroleum. List some important precursors of petrochemicals from petroleum refining. List the unit operation and conversion processes in petroleum refining. Describe briefly cracking and reforming processes.,Unit 8
2、Petroleum Processing,Petroleum, the product of natural changes in organic materials over millennia(数千年）, has accumulated beneath (在的下方 ) the earths surface in almost unbelievable quantities and has been discovered by humans and used to meet（满足） our varied fuel wants.,石油，有机物经过几千年自然变化的产物，在地表下以令人难以置信的量
3、堆积，已经被人们发现用来满足我们各种各样的燃料需求。,Because it is a mixture of thousands of organic substances, it has proved adaptable to ( (使)适应，适合) our changing needs.,因为它是一种几千种有机物质的混合物，所以已经证明它可以适应我们（不断）改变的需要。,It has been adapted, through changing patterns of processing or refining, to the manufacture of a variety of fue
4、ls and through chemical changes to the manufacture of a host of pure chemical substances, the petrochemicals（石化产品） .,通过改变工艺或者精炼模式它可以用于许多燃料的生产，而通过化学改变可以用于许多纯的化学物质石油化工产品的生产。,Modern units operate continuously. First a tubular heater（管式加热器） supplies hot oil to an efficient distillation column（蒸馏柱） which
5、 separates the material by boiling points into products similar to those obtained with the batch still（间歇蒸馏釜）, but more cleanly separated; then later units convert the less salable（畅销的） parts of the crude (the so-called bottom half of the barrel) into desired salable products.,现代（工艺）单元是连续操作的。首先，管式加热
6、器给一个有效蒸馏柱提供热油，（蒸馏柱）根据物质的沸点将原料分离，由此到的产品与（通过）蒸馏釜分离得到的产品类似但分离的更纯净；接下来的单元操作把这些原油的不畅销的成分（所谓的桶底部分）转化成为（人们）渴望得到的畅销产品。,1.Constituents of Petroleum (石油的组成 ),Crude petroleum is made up of （由.组成）thousands of （数千种）different chemical substances including gases, liquids, and solids and ranging from methane to asp
7、halt（沥青）. Most constituents are hydrocarbons, but there are significant amounts of compounds containing nitrogen (0 to 0.5%), sulfur (0 to 0.6%), and oxygen (0 to 3.5%). No one constituent exists in large quantity in any crude.,石油是由几千种化学物质组成的，包括气体、液体和固体，（涵盖）范围从甲醇到沥青。大部分成分是碳氢化合物，但是也有大量的含有氮（0-0.5%）、硫（
8、0-6%）和氧（0-3.5%）的化合物。在任何一种天然的原油当中，没有一种成分是大量存在的。,Aliphatics（脂肪族）, or open chain hydrocarbons （脂肪族，或开链烃化合物 ）,n-Paraffin（石蜡） Series or n-alkanes, CnH2n+2. This series comprises a larger fraction of most crudes than any other. Most straight-run (i.e., distilled directly from the crude) gasolines are pred
9、ominantly n-paraffins. These materials have poor antiknock properties.,正构烷烃系列，CnH2n+2 。这一系列的化合物比其他系列包含原油的更多范围的组分。大部分直溜汽油（也就是从原油中直接蒸馏出来）主要是正构烷烃。这些物质具有较差的抗爆性能。,Iso-Paraffin Series or Iso-alkanes,CnH2n+2. These branched chain materials perform better in internal-combustion engines（内燃机） than n-paraffins
10、 and hence are considered more desirable. They may be formed by catalytic reforming, alkylation, and polymerization. Only small amounts exist in crudes.,异构烷烃系列，CnH2n+2 。这些带有支链的烷烃在内燃机中表现的比正构烷烃好因而是（人们）更加渴望得到的。他们也可以通过重整、烷基化、聚合反应或者异构化反应来制备。在原油中只有一小部分是以异构烷烃的形式存在。,Olefin(石蜡), or Alkene（烯烃） Series, CnH2n.
11、This series is generally absent in crudes, but refining processes such as cracking (making smaller molecules from large ones) produce them. These relatively unstable molecules improve the antiknock（抗爆） quality of gasoline, although not as effectively as iso-paraffins（异链烷类）. On storage they polymeriz
12、e and oxidized, which is undesirable （不受欢迎的、不良的、有害的 ）.,链烯系列，CnH2n 。这一系列在原油中一般是不存在的，但是精炼工艺如裂化（从大分子制备小分子）会生产（他们）。尽管不如异构烷烃有效，这些相对不稳定的分子仍然提高了汽油的抗爆性能。在储存的时候，它们聚合和氧化，这是不合需要的。,This very tendency to react, however, makes them useful for forming other compounds, petrochemicals, by additional chemical reactio
13、ns. Ethylene, propylene, and butylene (also called ethene, propene, and butene) are examples. Cracked gasolines contain many higher members of the series.,然而，通过加成反应，这种非常容易发生反应的倾向使它们变得可以用来形成其它化合物-石油化学品。乙烯、丙烯和丁烯就是这样的例子。裂化汽油包含很多这一系列的高分子量成员。,Ring Compounds （环状化合物 ）,Naphthene(环烷烃) Series or Cycloalkanes,
14、CnH2n. This series, not to be confused with naphthalene, has the same chemical formula as the olefins, but lacks their instability and reactivity because the molecular configuration permits them to be saturated and unreactive like the alkanes, these compounds are the second most abundant series of c
15、ompounds in most crudes.,环烷烃系列，CnH2n 。这一些列，不要与萘弄混淆了，与烯烃有相同的化学分子式，但是缺少它们的不稳定性和反应性，因此这样的分子结构使得它们是饱和的，像烷烃一样是不易反应的。这类化合物是在大部分原油中第二位大量存在的系列。,The lower members of their group are good fuels; higher molecular weight ones are predominant（主要的） in gas oil（柴油） and lubricating oils（润滑油） separated from all types
16、 of crudes.,它们中的低分子量者是良好的燃料，高分子量的主要存在于从所有类型的原油中分离出来的汽油和润滑油中。,Aromatic, or Benzenoid(苯型的) Series, CnH2n-6. Only small amounts of this series occur in most common crudes, but they are very desirable in gasoline since they have high antiknock value（抗爆值）, good storage stability, and many uses besides fu
17、els. Many aromatics are formed by refining processes. Examples are: benzene, toluene（甲苯）, ethylbenzene（乙苯）, and xylene（二甲苯）.,芳香族或苯环系列，CnH2n-6 。这一系列中只有一小部分存在于原油中，但是它们有高的抗爆值、良好的储存稳定性和除了作为燃料的许多其它的用途，因此它们是汽油中非常的值得要的（成分）。许多芳香族（化合物）可以通过精炼工艺得到。例如，苯、甲苯、乙苯和二甲苯。,Lesser（较少的） Components. Sulfur has always been
18、an undesirable constituent of petroleum. The strong, objectionable odor（令人不快的气味） of its compounds originally brought about efforts to eliminate（消除去除） them from gasoline and, kerosene（柴油） fraction.,较少组分。硫一直是石油中有害的成分。最初，含硫化合物的强烈的、令人讨厌的味道导致（人们投入）精力除去在汽油和煤油中含有的硫化合物。,Chemical reactions were at first dire
19、cted at （把对准）destroying the odor. Later it was found that sulfur compounds had other undesirable effects (corrosion（侵蚀）, reducing the effect of tetraethyl（四乙基的） lead as an antiknock agent, air pollution).,首先，发生化学反应目的在于消除味道。后来，人们发现，硫化合物拥有其它的不合需要的影响（侵蚀，降低四乙基铅作为抗爆剂的作用，空气污染）。,At present, wherever possib
20、le（只要有可能，尽可能） the sulfur compounds are being removed and frequently the sulfur thus removed is recovered as elemental sulfur. Nitrogen compounds cause fewer problems than sulfur compounds, are less objectionable, and are generally ignored.,目前，只要可能，硫化合物是要除去的，通常除去的硫以元素（单质）硫的形式回收。含氮化合物比含硫化合物引起的问题要少，也不是
21、很令人讨厌，一般情况下是可以忽略的。,With the general adoption（采用） of catalytic cracking（催化裂解） and finishing processes（精加工工艺）, it was discovered that the occurrence of metals present only in traces (Fe, Mo, Na, Ni, V, etc) was troublesome（麻烦的） as they are strong catalyst poisons. Now methods to remove these substance
22、s are being perfected（日臻完善）.,随着催化裂解和精加工工艺的全面采用，人们发现痕量金属（Fe、Mo、Na、Ni、V等）的存在是麻烦的，因为它们是强的催化剂毒药。现在除去这些(金属）物质的方法正日趋完善。,Salt has been a major problem for many years. It is practically always present in raw crude, usually as an emulsion（乳状液）, and must be removed to prevent corrosion. It breaks down heating
23、 in the presence of hydrocarbons to produce hydrochloric acid（盐酸）. Mechanical or electrical desalting is preliminary(预备的，初步的) to most crude-processing steps.,很多年来，盐（的存在）是一个主要的问题。它几乎一直存在于原油当中，通常呈现乳状液，为了防止腐蚀必须被除去。在碳氢化合物存在下制备盐酸，盐（的存在)降低加热（效果）。对大部分原油加工步骤来说，机械或电力脱盐都是预备的（步骤）。,Petroleum crudes（原油） vary wid
24、ely, each kind requiring different refining procedures. The terms paraffin base, asphalt（沥青） (naphthene（环烷）), and mixed base are often applied to differentiate（区别，区分） crudes on the basis of the residues produced after simple distillation.,原油（成分）变化广泛，每一种都需要不同的精炼程序。通常应用石蜡基、沥青基和混合基（这些）术语来区分原油基于简单的蒸馏之后产
25、生的残基类型。,Pure chemical compounds are not regularly separated by refining processes. Some of the simpler, low molecular weight ones are isolated for processing into petrochemicals. Most petroleum products are mixtures separated on the basis of boiling point ranges and identified by the ultimate uses t
26、o which they are well adapted.,通过精炼工艺通常是不会分离出纯的化合物的。那些简单的、低分子量的中的一些被分离出来加工成为石化产品。大部分石油产品是基于沸点范围而分离的混合物，依据它们所采用的最终用途来识别。,2. Products of Refining (精炼产品 ),Precursors of Petrochemicals. As markets change, there is constant alteration in the materials used for the manufacture（生产，加工） of petrochemicals. Al
27、most any synthesis desired can be brought about; the problem is to do it at low cost with the equipment available.,石化产品前驱体。随着市场的改变，生产石化产品所用的原料也要不断的变更。几乎任何一个想得到的合成都可以发生，问题是如何利用（现有的）可以利用的设备以最低的成本实现它。,In earlier times, acetylene(乙炔) was used extensively for making petrochemicals, but it is difficult to
28、 make and store, so ethylene has now become the principal raw material for further synthesis. Precursors are reactive materials（活性物质） usually made by breaking down larger molecules, called feedstocks（给料）.,早期时候，乙炔被广泛地用来制备石油化工产品，但是乙炔比较难以制备和储存，所以现在乙烯已经成为进一步合成的主要的原材料。前驱体是通常由分解大分子所谓的原料，而制备的活性物质。,Ethylene
29、 is currently being made from LPG, naphtha（石脑油）, gas oil（气油）, diesel fuel（柴油）, ethane（乙烷）, propane（丙烷） and butane（丁烷）, with coal a possibility soon to be explored, and some testing of liquefied coal already completed.,目前，乙烯是由液化石油气、石脑油、汽油、柴油、乙烷、丙烷和丁烷（为原料）而制备的；由于煤易于开采，（人们）已经完成液化煤的一些测试。主要的前驱体如下：乙炔、丙烯、苯
30、、二甲苯、乙烯、丁烯、甲苯、萘。,The principal precursors are: Acetylene（乙炔） Propylene Benzene Xylenes Ethylene Butene Toluene（甲苯） Naphthalene（萘）,Ethylene, manufacturing from（由生产） distillates（馏分）, natural gas, or gas liquids, is the largest volume organic material. The conditions for its manufacture lie somewhere b
31、etween（介于.之间） those usually thought of as refining and those encountered in(遭遇） chemical production. Extremely large plants（工厂，车间） are built and being built. Some plants have a production capacity（生产量，生产能力） as large as 7108 kg/year.,乙烯，由馏分、天然气或液化气生产的，是最大量的有机物质。它的生产条件在（人们）通常称作精炼（工艺）和化学品的生产条件之间。特大型的工厂
32、将被和正在被建立。一些工厂的年产量高达7108 Kg。,Propylene is rarely produced except as a coproduct with ethylene. Steam cracking of ethylene produces most of it, and virtually all of it is used for polymer production. The remainder（残余物）, used mostly for chemical production, comes from oil refinery（炼油厂） fluid catalytic
33、crackers（流化床催化裂解）. Refinery propylene is used mainly for alkylation（烷基化）.,丙烯除了作为乙烯生产的副产品几乎很少（单独）生产，乙烯的蒸汽裂化产生大部分的丙烯而且实际上它们都用作聚合物的生产。大部分用作化学品生产的残余物来源于炼油厂的流化床催化裂解。精炼丙烯主要用来烷基化。,Aromatics are usually thought of as coal-derived, but the amount from that source in 1980 was almost vanishingly（难以觉察地） small,
34、4 percent of the benzene, 0.9 percent of the toluene, and only 0.1 percent of the xylenes.,芳香族化合物通常被看做是来源于煤的，但是在1980年时候从煤中得到的芳香族物质的产量是很小的，其中只有4%的苯、0.9%的甲苯、0.1%的二甲苯（是从煤中得到的）。,Benzene can be made by dehydrogenation（脱氢） of cyclohexane（环己烷） or substituted cyclohexanes, by aromatization（芳构化） of methycycl
35、opentane, and by demethylation（脱甲基） of toluene or xylenes. The demand for aromatics is large and attention is being given to find catalysts to produce more BTX (benezene-toluene-xylene )for chemical and high-grade fuel use.,苯可以通过环己胺或者是取代环己胺的脱氢、甲基环戊烷的芳构化、甲苯或二甲苯的脱甲基来制备。对芳香族化合物的需求量是很大的，（人们）给与关注寻找催化剂来生产
36、更多的化学和燃料用途的BTX（苯-甲苯-二甲苯）。,Naphthalene is used in smaller quantities than the lighter aromatics, but its consumption is far from trivial. Dealkylation of a selected reformate (重整产品) stream using chromate-aluminum carbide （铬酸铝碳化物） catalyst gives a product which is purified to be purer than that formed
37、 form coal tar.,相于较轻的芳香族物质，萘的使用量是比较少的，但是它的消耗量是非同寻常的。用铬酸铝碳化物作催化剂对已选的重整油蒸汽催化脱烷基能够生产出比煤焦油中形成的产品更纯的产品。,Light distillates. Aviation gasoline(航空汽油), (automobile) motor gasoline（动力汽油）, naphthas（石脑油）, petroleum solvents, jet-fuel（飞机燃料）, and kerosene（煤油） are the fractions generally regarded as (把当作，看作，认为) li
38、ght distillates. Any given refinery（精炼厂） rarely makes all of them. Gasoline is the most important product, and around 45 percent of the crude processed now ends up（最终） as gasoline.,轻质馏分。航空汽油、汽车汽油、石脑油、石油溶剂、喷气式发动机燃料、煤油等都通常被称为轻质馏分。任何一个给定的炼油厂都很少会生产上述产品的全部。汽油是最重要的产品，大约有45%的原油是以(作为）汽油为结尾的。,Intermediate di
39、stillates. These include gas oil, light and heavy domestic furnace oils（家用炉用油）, diesel fuels, and distillates used for cracking to produce more gasoline. These distillates are used mainly for transportation fuels（运输燃料） in heavy trucks（重型卡车）, railroads, small commercial boats, standby and peak-shavin
40、g power plants, farm equipment, and wherever diesels（柴油机） are used to produce power. Home heating furnaces use these distillates.,中间馏分。这些（馏分）包括汽油、轻质的和重质的家用炉子油、柴油和用来裂解生产更多汽油的馏分。这些馏分主要用作重型卡车、铁路、小型商船的交通燃料，以及用在备用的和用电高峰时起调节作用的工厂、农场设备等任何用内燃机来发电的地方。,Heavy distillates. These are converted into (使转变；把转化成；折合
41、) lubricating oils, heavy oils for a variety of fuel uses, waxes (石蜡), and cracking stock (股票，库存).,重质馏分。这些（馏分）被转化成润滑油、各种各样用作燃料的重油、石蜡和裂解原料。,Residues. Some constituents are simply not volatile enough to be distilled, even under vacuum. These include asphalt（沥青）, residual fuel oil, coke, and petrolatum
42、（石油脂，石蜡油）. These difficult salable materials are by-products of the refining process, and while many are extremely useful, most are difficult to dispose of and are relatively unprofitable.,残留物。有些成分不易通过挥发而被蒸馏，即使是在真空条件下。这些（馏分）包括沥青、残余燃料油、焦炭和石蜡油。这些不畅销物质是精炼工艺过程的副产品，尽管许多是非常有用的，但是大部分是难于处理的、相对无用的。,Petroleum
43、-derived chemicals, commonly known as petrochemicals, are made from petroleum and natural gas. Production of some of these products is very large, and over 1000 organic chemicals are derived from petroleum, Examples are carbon black, butadiene（丁二烯）, styrene（苯乙烯）, ethylene glycol（乙二醇）, polyethylene（聚
44、乙烯）, etc.,从石油得到的化学品，通常被称为石油化学品，是由石油和天然气组成的。这些产品中的一些产品的产量是非常大的，超过1000种的有机化学品是来源于石油的。如炭黑、丁二烯、苯乙烯、乙烯基乙二醇和聚乙烯等等。,3. Processing or Refining (加工或精炼),Refining involves two major branches, separation processes and conversion processes. Particularly in the field of conversion, there are literally hundreds of
45、 processes in use, many of them patented.,精炼工艺包括两大主要分支：分离工艺和转化工艺。特别是在转化工艺中有几百种在用的工艺，其中他们有许多是取得了专利的。,Even in a given refinery running a single crude, daily changes to accommodate changing markets and changing parameters of the conversion apparatus take place. No refinery on any day will operate exact
46、ly as shown, but all refineries（精炼厂） will operate along the basic lines indicated.,即使是在一个特定的炼油厂处理一种单一的石油，会发生为了适应不断改变的市场而每天（发生的）变化和转化设备的参数不断改变。没有一家炼油厂在任何一天会准确地按照给出的（标准）运行，但是所有的炼油厂都会按照给出的基本的线路生产。,Separation processes. The unit operations used in petroleum refining are the simple, usual ones, but the i
47、nterconnections and interactions may be complex. Most major units are commonly referred to as stills. A crude still consists of heat exchangers, a furnace, a fractionating tower, steam strippers（蒸汽脱附装置）, condensers, coolers, and auxiliaries.,分离工艺。在石油精炼中所用到的单元操作是些简单的、常用的，但是（这些操作间的）相互联系和相互作用可能是很复杂的。大部
48、分主要的单元被称为蒸馏釜。一个原油蒸馏釜包括热交换器、熔炉、精馏塔蒸汽脱附装置、冷凝器、冷却器和辅助装置。,There are usually working tanks（工作罐，供应槽） for temporary storage at the unit; frequently there are treating tanks, used for improving the color and removing objectionable（讨厌的） components, particularly sulfur; blending and mixing tanks; receiving an
49、d storage tanks for crude feed; a vapor recovery system; spill（溢流） and fire control systems; and other auxiliaries.,单元操作中，工作油罐常用作临时存储；处理油罐常用来改善颜色以及除去某些有害成分，特别是S；混合搅拌油罐；接收和存储原油罐；蒸汽回收系统；溢流控制系统；以及其他辅助设备。,For the refinery as a whole, a boiler house （锅炉房）and usually an electrical generating system （发电系统）are added. A control room with instruments to measure, record, and control, thus keeping track of （跟踪，了解）material which permits heat and material balances, forms the heart of the system. One of the major functions of the instruments is to permit accurate accounting o