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1、Welcome to this course！ In this course, we are all learners and teachers. Your experiences and capacities are valuable resources for me. Respect for yourself and others is an essential ingredient in creating a positive learning environment. I look forward to working with you to create this kind of l
2、earning environment.,Questions,Do you know any thing about this course? What do expect to learn in this course? Have you any plan to learn it?,II. Course Objectives/purposes,The specific course objectives are as follows: To acquire knowledge related to ID ； To develop skills to design an English cou
3、rse； To learn how to do a case study of an ID for EFL To cultivate the ability to study and explore the issues concerned with ID for TEFL,III. Plan.,1.Textbook :Course Design by Fraida Dubin and Elite OLshtain上海外语教育出版社 2. Time schedule: 51periods in one term. 3. Evaluation will be based on: 1)Attend
4、ance and participation. 2)Project presentation and handout (the required case studies). 3)Final examination.,Books Recommended:,1.鲁子问，等.英语教学设计 M上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990. 2. Kathleen Graves,2004. Designing Language Courses: A Guide for Teachers，外语教学与研究出版社 3.James Dean Brown,1995.The Elements of Language Cur
5、riculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development外语教学与研究出版社 4.加涅，教学设计原理,上海：华东师范大学出版社。 5.JackC.Richards ,语言教学的流派，外语教学与研究出版社，2000.,V I. What is “教学设计”？,1.Discussion（About a story, P.1 鲁）. 2.Questions. 1） What is “教学设计”？ 2）Is it the same as “备课”？,I. Translation of“教学设计”“英语教学设计”,1) 1 教学设计（Instructio
6、nal Design,简称ID); 也称“教学系统设计”（Instructional System Design,简称ISD); “教学系统开发”(Instructional System Development); 或“学习系统设计”(Learning System Design) 英语教学设计instructional design for Teaching English as a foreign language( ID for TEFL) (Refer to Fraida P3-4 for other terms.),Definitions of ID ID as Technolog
7、y: Instructional technology is the systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems. ID is a technology!,David Merrills,教学是一门科学，而教学设计是建立在教学科学这一坚实基础是的技术，因而教学也可以被认为是科学型的技术（science-based technol
8、ogy）。教学的目的使学生获得知识技能，教学设计的目的是创设和促进学生掌握这些知识技能的学习经验和学习环境。,2.Instructional Design as Process,Instructional design is the process of solving instructional problems by systematic analysis of the conditions for learning. (Barbara Seels) ID is a process!,1.教学是以促进学习的方法影响学习者的一系列事件，而教学设计是一个系统化规划教学系统的过程。（加涅，199
9、2） 2.教学系统设计是运用系统方法分析研究教学过程中相互联系的各部分的问题和需求，确立解决它们的方法步骤，然后评价教学成果的系统计划过程。（肯普，1994）,史密斯和雷根对“教学设计”所下的定义是： “教学设计是指运用系统方法，将学习理论与教学理论的原理转换成对教学资料和教学活动的具体计划的系统化过程。” 乌美娜教授 的定义： “教学设计是运用系统方法分析教学问题和确定教学目标、建立解决教学问题的策略方案、试行解决方案、评价试行结果和对方案进行修改的过程；它以优化教学效果为目的，以学习理论、教学理论和传播学为理论基础。”,3.I D as a Science:,Instructional d
10、esign is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.,赖格卢思（Reigeluth，C. M.）在教学设计是什么及为什么如是说一文中指出： “教学设计是一门涉及理解与改进
11、教学过程的学科。任何设计活动的宗旨都是提出达到预期目的的最优途径(means)，因此，教学设计主要是关于提出最优教学方法的处方的一门学科，这些最优的教学方法能使学生的知识和技能发生预期的变化。”,4. ID is a concept！ 1） Why “instruction” not “teaching”? 著名教学设计者加涅（Robert M.Gagne）明确说明：“为什么我们用这个词而不用 teaching这个词呢？原因是，我们希望描述对人们的学习有直接影响的所有事件，而不是只描述由教师个人发起的那些事件。” （加涅，1999） 2） 教学设计是以学习理论为基础的现代的教学研究的产物。教学
12、设计是一种以学习者为中心的预设教学活动的理念. 3）鲁子问的定义： （鲁子问p.6-7） 鲁子问： （Refer to P . 6.）,5.ID与备课及教师的教案,传统教学理论中的备课关注的是“钻研教材、了解学生、考虑教法”，侧重于对教学过程中的备课环节进行经验性的、描述性的说明，尽管它同样具有形成于活动起始之前的特征，但却缺乏建立在心理学研究成果基础上的科学阐释。,教案是以课时为单位设计的实际教学方案，是课堂教学活动的重要依据。通常包括班级、学科、课题名称、上课时间、课的类型、教学目标、教学方法、教学内容、时间分配等，有时还包括教学媒体的使用、练习题、板书设计和测验题等。 教案是教学设计的产
13、物之一，是教学设计指导教学过程的具体体现。,教学设计是以分析教学需求为基础，以形成解决问题的步骤和方案为目的 教学设计是一个系统计划的过程，有一套具体的操作程序 教学设计形成方案或产物，必须按照程序进行检验评价,教学设计过程的具体产物是经过验证的教学系统，这个系统是一种包含多种要素的能实现某种目标的，具有一定功能的不同层次的综合体。 它可能是一门课程、一个教学方案、一种教学软件或一组教学资源等。,VI. Theoretical Basis of ID,5 different ideas about what the basis of the theories are: 1)单基础说： 2）双基
14、础说： 3）三基础说： 4）四基础说： 5）五基础说：,3 Aspects of the theories of ID:,1.方法理论:系统理论(Refer to P.7鲁); 2.技术理论:传播理论与设计理论(Refer to P.9鲁). 3.教与学的理论:学习理论与教学理论。,1.learning &learning theories,1.definition of learning ： In psychology and education, learning is a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and env
15、ironmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in ones knowledge, skills, values, and world views,2.learning theories,A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people learn, helping us understand the inherently(内在地、固有地) complex process of learning. the 3 most
16、 inflential learning theories : 1)behaviorism; 2)cognitivism; 3) constructivism.,Behaviorism,Behavorism as a theory was most developed by B. F. Skinner(斯金纳). It loosely includes the work of such people as Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull.,Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a th
17、eory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.,The 3 basic assumptions :,1. learning is manifested by a change in behavior. 2. the environment shapes behavior. 3. the principles of contiguity（联结
18、）(how close in time, two events must be for a bond to be formed ) and reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. （Refer to P.8鲁）,经典条件反射(classic conditioning)(又称巴甫洛夫条件反射),是指经典条件反射一个刺激和另一个带有奖赏或惩罚的无条件刺
19、激多次联结(contiguity)，可使个体学会在单独呈现该刺激时，也能引发类似无条件反应的条件反应。 经典条件反射最著名的例子是巴甫洛夫的狗的唾液条件反射。,巴甫洛夫的经典条件反射学说,【内容】：诺贝尔奖金获得者、俄国生理学家伊凡巴甫洛夫（Ivan Pavlov， 18701932）是最早提出经典性条件反射的人。 他在研究消化现象时，观察了狗的唾液分泌，即对食物的一种反应特征。他的实验方法是，把食物显示给狗，并测量其唾液分泌。在这个过程中，他发现如果随同食物反复给一个中性刺激，即一个并不自动引起唾液分泌的刺激，如铃响，这狗就会逐渐“学会”在只有铃响但没有食物的情况下分泌唾液。一个原是中性的刺
20、激与一个原来就能引起某种反应的刺激相结合，而使动物学会对那个中性刺激做出反应，这就是经典性条件反射的基本内容。,经典条件反射实验情境,巴甫洛夫对条件反射的研究是开创性的，而且他的实验方法与研究结果被后来的心理学家所广泛接受，因此，他的条件反射理论被称为经典性条件反射理论。,华生的行为主义 约翰华生(John B.Watson,1878)于1913年首先打出了行为主义的旗帜，他将巴甫洛夫的条件反射理论及其研究作为学习理论的基础。他认为，学习就是以一种刺激替代另一种刺激建立条件反射的过程，通过条件反射建立牢固的刺激反应联结，从而形成了新的行为习惯。,斯金纳的学习实验研究,【内容】：斯金纳（B.F.
21、Skinner）是行为主义的代表人物之一，是操作性条件反射的创始人，是美国当代著名的心理学家。 斯金纳在特制的实验箱（斯金纳箱）内研究了白鼠的学习。箱内装有一个杠杆，杠杆与传递事物的机械装置相连，只要杠杆一被压动，一颗食便滚进食盘。白鼠被放进箱内，自由活动，当它踏上杠杆时，有食丸放出，于是吃到食物。它一旦再按压杠杆，食丸又滚出，反复几次，白鼠就学会了按压杠杆来取得食物的条件反射。斯金纳将这种条件反射叫做操作性条件反射（ Operant conditioning ）。,操作条件反射：斯金纳式条件反射。可以白鼠学会按压杠杆以获得食丸为例。,Operant conditioning,2) B.F.
22、Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning (斯金纳的操作性条件作用说). Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association(联结) is made between a behavi
23、or and a consequence for that behavior,Differences:,Although John B. Watson founded behaviorism, B. F. Skinner refined and popularized it. His main principle, operant conditioning ,differs from classical conditioning in that operant conditioning applies to voluntary behavior（有意行为）, while classical c
24、onditioning applies to reflexes(反射/本能反应). Its influence on ID in that behavior, in learning, can be influenced by manipulating (控制)the environment. That is, put the right process in place (system) and you can provide an environment for learning.,桑代克的联结主义的学习观,学习的联结说 桑代克(Thorndike)认为学习的实质在于形成情境与反应之间的联
25、结。 情境（以S代表）有时也叫刺激，包括外界情境和思想、情感等大脑内部情境。反应（以R 代表）包括“肌肉与腺体的活动”和“观念、意志、情感或态度”等内部反应。所谓联结，就是结合、关系、倾向，指的是某种情境只能唤起某种反应，而不能唤起其它反应的倾向。用“”作为引起或导致的符号。联结的公式为：SR。,Cognitivism（认知主义） Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological(生理的) processes of sorting and encodi
26、ng information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory.,Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach:,(1) the memory system is an active organized processor of information ； (2) prior knowledge plays an important ro
27、le in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. （Refer to P.8）,认知理论,认知学习主要包括知识掌握和问题解决过程，情感学习与技能学习中的认识部分也属于认知学习。 什么是认知？ 从广义来讲，认知即人的认识活动； 从狭义来讲，认知指知觉的理解性，即领会、理解、意识到的东西，指思 维、记忆、感知、识别、分类等心理过程。 认知理论学说有各种派别，如：完形说（格式塔学习理论gestalt ）、顿悟说、符号完形说、乔姆斯基（Chomsky,A.N.)语言学习论等等
28、。,Constructivism,Constructivism ,put forward by Piaget ,views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, “learning involves constructing ones own knowledge from ones own experienc
29、es.“,Constructivism promotes a students free exploration within a given framework or structure.The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in
30、self-directed learning, experiential learning,建构主义理论,建构主义认为，知识是个体主动建构的，是对外部信息进行主动地选择、加工和处理，主动进行意义建构的过程。 建构主义强调学习者的认知主体作用，提倡以学生为中心，关注学习者对知识的主动探索、主动发现和对所学知识的主动建构。 认为知识不是通过传授得到的，而是由学习者在一定的情境下，借助于教师和其他学习者的帮助和必要的信息资源，通过协作、讨论、交流和主动建构获得的。,皮亚杰建构主义学习理论的贡献,行为主义用刺激反应模式去解释认知学习，它忽视了认知发展的一个最主要的方面：儿童的能动作用。 儿童的智慧和道
31、德结构同我们成人不一样，应尽一切努力按照儿童的心理结构和他们不同的发展阶段来组织教学。 启发： 让学生主动地学； 创设适合学生发展的课程和教育。,教学思想: the 2 infuential instructional theories,1.程序(programmed instruction PI)教学思想; P I is the name of the technology invented by the behaviorist B.F. Skinner to improve teaching. 2.结构主义教学思想 the most famous representative :布鲁纳（J
32、erome S. Bruner，1915）,美国著名的心理学家和教育家 （Refer to P.8鲁）,VII. The Basic Concepts of ID for TEFL,1.The natures of English instruction (Refer to P.14鲁) 1) foreign language education terms defined: ESL:English as a second language_in the natural setting of the target language EFL:English as a foreign langua
33、ge ESP:English for specific purposes. (Refer to P.23. Fraida) 2)subject-centered instruction(学科教学) 3)inter-cultural communication,The Core Concepts of ID for TEFL,1.Language learning theories（P.15）. 2. Language instructional theories. 3. Language instructional techonology instruction(Refer to P.13-1
34、7鲁),VIII. The Main Contents of ID,1.Discussion: （Refer to P.20 鲁） 2.关于教学系统的范围和任务层次：（ Refer to P.21鲁）,The History of ID Models_ the 3 Stages :,1.1940s-60s The 1940s: Influences on this period: World War II (1941-1945),This period was dominated by military training needs. Much of the foundation of the
35、 field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping（拆卸） a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber,The Theories and Design of this Period: B
36、ased on the research and theories of B.F. Skinneroperant conditioning, the training programs were focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate(纠正) incorre
37、ct performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback.,The Spreading：,After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated(复制) in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom.Th
38、e approach is still common in the U.S. military.,The 1950s： The development of instructional TV directly helped the birth of ID models. the important researches and theories: (Refer to P.22-23鲁） (1) The development of programmed instruction In 1954 ,Skinner published the paper Science of Learning an
39、d Art of Instruction, which helped the formation and development of ID theories.,（2）The popularity of writing behavioral objectives.,Robert Mager published his 1962 book, Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction, influenced school systems for decades and continues to shape the vast majority o
40、f corporate training programs developed today.,the ABCD,To prepare an objective consider the ABCD: Audience: plan for who your learners are. Behavior: describe what they will be able to do Conditions and Degree: how will the learners performance be measured, in what conditions and to what degree.,(3
41、)Robert GlaserS Criterion-referenced test（标准参照测试）,Robert Glaser was the first to use the term criterion-referenced . Glaser indicated that such instruments could be used to assess student entry-level behavior and thus, determine the extent to which students had acquired the needed behaviors or objec
42、tives. Such measurements not only allowed one to test the learners, but also test the system.(P.23),(4)The publication of Gagne s book: the Conditions of Learning,In 1965, Gagne published his book the Conditions of Learning, an important event to the development of ID,(5) M. Scrivens theories,In 196
43、7, M. Scriven put forward the notion of formative evaluation and summative evaluation .His evaluation theories provided basis for the assessment the theories of ID.,2.1960s to the end of 1980s ID developed very fast. ID became an independent discipline at the end of 1960sand at the beginning of 1970
44、s.,3. After 1990s,3 characteristics： 1) The slow development of ID in education. 2) The wide applications of multi-media computer-assisted instruction and instruction in distance education in ID models. 3) The influence of new theories in ID models, for example, constuctivism.,The Types of ID Models
45、,The theoretical influences on ID models,Refer to P.35-37 Fraida,In 1980,Andrew&Goodson confirmed as many as 60 ID/ISD models ,and classified and analyzed 40 of them.,ADDIE model：,ADDIE stands for the 5 phases contained in the model: 1. Analyze - analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned,
46、. 2. Design - develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach 3. Develop - create instructional or training materials 4. Implement - deliver or distribute the instructional materials 5. Evaluate - make sure the materials achieved the desired goals,In the ADDIE model, each step has an o
47、utcome that feeds into the subsequent step. Analysis Design Development Implementation Evaluation Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model.,Tabas steps(1962)(P.2): 1.Diagnosis of needs(判断需求) 2.Formulation of objectives（建立目标） 3.Selection of content（选择内容） 4. Or
48、ganization of content（组织内容） 5.Selection of learning experiences（选择学习方式） 6.Organization of learning experiences（组织学习方式） 7.Determination of what to evaluate ,and the means to evaluate（决定评估内容和评估手段）.,Kathleen Graves,1.Defining the context (界定环境) 2.Articulating beliefs (表达理念) 3.Conceptualizing content (教
49、学内容理念化) 4.Formulating goals and objectives（构建教学目标和目的） 5.Assessing needs（评估需求） 6.Organizing the course(课堂组织) 7.Developing materials（教材开发） 8.Designing an assessment plan（设计评估计划）,Classification of ID Models,1.基于教学设计内容的层次的分类 （1）以产品为中心的模式； （2）以课堂为中心的模式； （3）以系统为中心的模式。 （Refer to P.24鲁）,2.基于教学设计理论基础的分类,（1）基于一般系统理论的过程模式 (2)基于学习理论与教学理论的过程模式 (3)基于教学设计实施方法的分类,（1）基于一般系统理论的过程模式 Rickey系统设计过程六要素（P.25鲁）,（2） 基于学习理论与教学理论的过程模式,1. The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model (SAM Model迪克-凯瑞系统方法模型),The model was origina