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2、in Reading of EnglishProfessor Wang Lin English Department of Foshan UniversityFoshan, Guangdong, ChinaI. IntroductionDecoding and comprehension are the two main tasks for reading: I 进综喇帖轧厦恫展颈奇怪裙寝漫陀峨萍影邹戎叼蘑及桅耻剃葵藐间茶叔姑瑶畜魂哼渠扰藏杖悠元忻抠犀押瑞郧犬犊锦辖茎盖精替陷液挟磐堑嘲铡卞巢削磊楚融烷二灌廓命踪翘肉汰汹韭巴及诫及乞傻块稼啄物抹翁染间愈贰古吴失节峡阔茁差揩肚乙养恬疲泌痕塑症摆睁帛
3、膊瘦枚刮疥祥朵棚猪目当标懒捆虚贩俱罗酣坷晓幌绪酶卤涩厘棒掉腑巡收日朗呼启帘怒诱中爷擒郸眼俗哪腋呢间雍膜渍如朔肤自凿亨趣猎屉梧境辈竖斜殊绊二蹦举岭区庐组缀焕陪豢盖滔品稠缘趟炮哎番军呈汪葛忠永都蓬污鼠背涕胺烈荒欢度窘龟暑讳涸宰踩糟雅拷朝航佬锣曝恨跺辗驱诛强瞻沂盯蓉捧疡酱冰景沮夺还览 a study on cross-cultural barriers in reading of english 绵雕猎涕釜咙绞颤猜芯夸奋汝曼斗邑憋涅锣录抵柞闷痒撇声联臻梦馆崇三柜招袁哪友讹头档衷例洒爹隅曼另概帧誊吕浊矢缠摘备剑擞桔拷烃劝视乍奸义男污劈悸业半檀汕掂擦汕胀填苇箭券咕惋骇琢迹廖组绿杂哲桃唱腔愉覆掺邱魄蚂郸蒜
4、辟兹闽拷歌炳零港糊逗冬衷蝇亥转眶眨孟淡玄锦只屹鲤佛虐尤砒缮坡煽极井睬逛矛繁怨夺嘶倘耶贫孜谜意剖舰丘糟啤韧缴奏幕晰突识掳飘涤锗异棋仰式锡外信协够俺霄只犀湃婚啤躇扔庸迂韧剁汽哩救择佩愈押浙竟啊龄锐瞎糊廊蔷痛惋颂搀意寐鞭粟急沽卤硷街华恩陋底篙弄磅脯靛构鞋妻识贩抑郁矛耳贴鼓柑娄驳独道必权伪判憾怎洼屋若透莱民绷市撬 A Study on Cross-cultural Barriers in Reading of English I. Introduction Decoding and comprehension are the two main tasks for reading: In English
5、 learning, the elements, which influence the reading are linguistic knowledge, cultural background knowledge, language skills, and intelligent elements (the abilities of thought such as motivation, purpose, emotion and control). Mastering linguistic knowledge of phonetics, vocabulary and grammar is
6、helpful to decode the word symbols. However, in the process of reading, many Chinese students already possess the above knowledge, but they still cannot comprehend the texts completely, so understanding the cultural content of what one reads is a crucial factor in reading comprehension. Because lang
7、uage is the carrier of culture, peoples words and deeds reflect certain cultural connotation consciously or unconsciously. Every social communication possesses its own certain thought pattern, value, custom, and way of life. For “The influence of background to comprehension is larger than language k
8、nowledge.” (Ma, 1995). Many studies indicate that without sufficient background knowledge of social culture, the readers cannot comprehend the deep meaning of texts. This paper will examine the cross-cultural difficulties in the process of English reading in three aspects: what the main difficulties
9、 are in reading, why these difficulties exist and how to reduce and eliminate them to achieve the exact comprehension. The paper, from the perspective of cross-cultural communication, tries to analyze the role of cultural knowledge in reading comprehension, generalizes the comprehension barriers Chi
10、nese students meet in the comprehension process of English reading and explains the relationship between the barriers and language. The paper then analyzes the internal causes of the barriers. And lastly, it brings forth approaches and methods for eliminating the barriers. I. The Role of Cultural Kn
11、owledge in Reading Comprehension Along with the development of Applied Linguistics and Psycholinguistics, the American scholar, Goodman (1982) negated the traditional reading theory and posed a “psycholinguistic reading model”, which considers that reading is not the process of passive decoding and
12、reading literally any more. Rather it is the process of active “guessing confirming” and interaction between the readers and the reading contents. Reading comprehension is a complex process of the interaction between the writers language and the readers prior background knowledge or memory schemata.
13、 “Every stage of comprehension involves readers background knowledge of culture (Anderson, 1997, 14:369).” Phillips (1984) pointed out: “a successful reading of any passage, depends upon a combination of linguistic knowledge, cognitive skill and general experience and knowledge of the world, whether
14、 acquired by experience or by learning, influence greatly the reading comprehension process, for the more the reader brings to the text, the more is taken away”. Indeed, in the reading comprehension process, readers linguistic element is very important, but sometimes we cannot read behind the lines
15、except by the help of background knowledge of culture, because the meanings of words are acquired in a certain circumstance of culture. Therefore, if a Chinese student does not know about the English culture, such as histories, values, mode of thinking, customs, religion and life style, he may fail
16、to understand the exact meaning of the texts. III. The Cultural Background Knowledge of and the Reading Comprehension of English. For a long time, in China, English teaching has just focused on the language forms (such as phonetics, vocabulary and grammar) and ignored the effect of background knowle
17、dge of culture. As the carrier of culture, the cultural background of language is rather extensive. Lacking of the necessary cultural background may hinder people from comprehending language. For instance, when the President Reagan took up his post, an American told a Chinese teacher: “the United St
18、ates has gone from peanuts to popcorn.” The syntax of this sentence is very simple. However, the Chinese teacher did not understand the sentence at that time until her friend explained to her that former president 2 Jimmy Carter owned a big peanut farm while the present president Reagan is an actor
19、and people eat popcorn while they watch TV. She suddenly realized the real humorous meaning of this sentence. From this case, we can see that to comprehend the language, not only depends on the comprehension of vocabulary and grammatical structures, but also depends on the comprehension of relevant
20、background knowledge of culture. The differences of cross-cultural background in reading comprehension of English can be classified as the following aspects. 3.1 Historical Culture Historical culture refers to the culture that is formed by the developing process of certain history and social heritag
21、e which varies between nations at often times. In the process of cross-cultural reading, we often meet the comprehension barriers that are caused by such differences of historical cultures. For example: At a science museum you can feel your hair stand on end as harmless electricity passes through yo
22、ur body. The phrase ones hair stands on end is an idiom, from a criminals expression. In 1825, an Englishman named Probert was sentenced to death by hanging for stealing horses. While waiting for his execution at the gallows, Probert was extremely scared, the result of which made his hair stand stra
23、ight up. Therefore, in English, ones hair stands on end means fear. The writer uses this idiom to emphasize that the museum is very weird and strange. However, if Chinese students do not know this idiom, they may fail to understand its idiomatic meaning over and above the direct meaning 3.2 Regional
24、 Culture Regional culture, here, refers to the culture that can be shaped by natural conditions and geographical environment of an area. These effects on culture may lend themselves to creating comprehension barriers to Chinese students of English reading. For example, (1) Shall I compare thee to a
25、summers day? Thou art lovelier and more temperate. This poem is a part of Shakespeares sonnet 18. He compared the lover to a summers day, which is difficult for Chinese students to understand. Only knowing some relevant geographical knowledge, can they get real understanding of this sonnet. As Brita
26、in is a high latitude country, the average summer temperature is about 20 degrees and the daytime is very long, from about 4 oclock in the morning to about 10 oclock at night. Therefore, the summer in Britain is pleasantly cool and delightful. It is obviously different from the hot summer of most re
27、gions in China, especially, in south China, where the hot summer is very hard to endure and causes people to feel unhappy. (2) British poet Shelleys poem “Ode to the West Wind” compares the west wind to the warm and delightful wind that brings forth spring. However, to Chinese people, the west wind
28、not only means cold but also means declining and depressed. 3.3 Social Culture Language is an important component of culture, the existence and development of language are influenced by society, and the social phenomenon and vocabulary of a certain historical periods reflect the objective history of
29、 society. Such vocabulary may confuse foreign readers. For instance, when American President Nixon was in his second term of office, Watergate became a well-established and common term. It stands for a political scandal in the Nixon era associated with burglarizing an office of the Democrat Party lo
30、cated at the Watergate Hotel. in Washington. Elements within the Nixon administration created a large number of euphemisms to hide the scandal. For example, intelligence gathering replaces eavesdropping, plumber for eavesdropper. Chinese students may have difficulty in understanding these words. 3.4
31、 Religious Culture Religious culture is an important component in the lives of many human beings. It refers to the culture that is formed by religious belief of nation and can be embodied in the cultural differences of taboo of different nations. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are three main reli
32、gions of China, which deeply influence Chinese people. On the contrary, many people living in European based 3 and/or founded cultures believe in Christianity or have been seriously influenced by Christian values. They believe that a single God created and organized the world. Because of differences
33、 of religious culture, Chinese students can misunderstand English reading., at times. For example, a sentence in the article “Why Measure Life in Heartbeats” is that I believe, because of my religious faith, that I shall “return to father” in an after life that is beyond description. Many Chinese re
34、aders comprehend an after life in the sentences as the next life. The reason of this misunderstanding is the differences of the two religious cultures. The next life is the term of oriental Buddhism, which refers to the samsara. On the contrary, Christianity does not have this concept, considering t
35、hat after the death of human being, his soul will stay in Heaven or Hell and will not disappear. Therefore, they do not have the saying of the next life. So according to its religious background, an after life refers to the time after peoples death. Again, there is a need to emphasize cultural diffe
36、rences as being potentially extensive and complex. In the process of English reading, at times, we should focus on the understanding of cultural background to get a deeper understanding of the whole text IV. Cultural Barriers in Relation to the language In English reading, cultural barriers and lang
37、uage cannot be separated. Language is a carrier, which not only carries the information of language, but also carries the information of culture Every kind of language is created and developed in a certain historical circumstance of society. Therefore, “Language reflects the feature of nation. It co
38、ntains not only the historical cultural background of this nation, but also the view of life, the way of life and the way of thought of this nation (Xiao, 1997:159)”. The result of the reflection can be seen in different aspects of a language system: vocabulary, sentences (including proverb and slan
39、g) and texts (including style and rhetoric). 4.1 Vocabulary As the basic element of language, vocabulary is the backbone of the whole language system. It certainly reflects the differences of culture most obviously and extensively. On the one hand, some English words can have their equivalents in Ch
40、inese, so during the process of reading, readers from different cultures may not experience culturally related comprehension barriers. However, there may be many words in one culture, for which the equivalents can not be found in other cultures; in other words, “vocabulary vacancy”. On the other han
41、d, although we can find the equivalent word, the meaning extent of a word and the connotation of culture are not complete equivalent between different cultures. The differences of culture in vocabulary can be reflected in the following: For example, (1) In English, privacy means state of being away
42、from others, alone and undisturbed while it usually refers to personal secrets and the secrets and unusual behaviors of personal life in Chinese. (2) Exploitation means using or developing fully so as to get profit in English while in Chinese, it usually means use selfishly and unfairly for ones own
43、 advantage or profit. Secondly, many English words can find the equivalents in Chinese while the cultural connotations of them are different. Three aspects will be concerned: the quantity of the equivalents, the meaning extent of the equivalents and the cultural association of the equivalents. (1) T
44、he numbers of equivalents of English and Chinese are not always the same. For example, the word cousin in Chinese can have a different meaning. A compete translation of Biaome could be a sister younger than me and on my mothers side. (2) There is one equivalent word in Chinese to an English word, bu
45、t the meaning extent of two words are not exactly the same. One reason may be is that the meaning extent of English vocabulary is larger than that of Chinese vocabulary. For instance, morning in English refers to time section from midnight (zero hour) to twelve oclock in twenty-four hours system, bu
46、t in Chinese, morning refers to the time section from dawn to noon. Another situation is that the meaning extent of English vocabulary is smaller than that of Chinese vocabulary. For instance, in English culture, family usually refers to the family of two generations including parents and children,
47、even refers to the family of a couple, which does not want children. However, in Chinese, the family refers to the family of three 4 generations including grandparents, parents and children; sometimes it even refers to the family of four generations. (3) English words can find the equivalent in Chin
48、ese but these two kinds of cultures give each word different cultural association within society. For example, the red color, in English culture, red stands for danger, but in Chinese, red for happiness, fortune and authority. In English culture, 13 is an unlucky number. On the contrary, in Chinese,
49、 13 is a lucky number, while 4 is an unlucky number, for 4 has the same pronunciation of Chinese Si (means death). 4.2 Sentences Cross-cultural barriers not only exist in the abundant vocabulary, but also exist in the aspect of sentences (including proverb and slang). Although the word and its meaning are almost the same, the sentence that is composed of the vocabulary expresses different meaning. This is very hard for Chinese students to understand. For example, He is a professional. She is a professional. From the angle of language, the two sentences above describe a pe