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1、Chapter 8 Concepts of Chemical Bonding,Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; and Bruce E. Bursten,John D. Bookstaver St. Charles Community College St. Peters, MO 2006, Prentice Hall, Inc.,November 15 Chapter 8 Chemical Bonding,Section 1 and 2 Bonding t
2、ypes Lewis Structures Ionic bonding HW: 1,3,4,7 to 19 odd ,24,25 There will be a quiz any day on hw questions,Chemical Bonds,Three basic types of bonds: Ionic Electrostatic attraction between ions Covalent Sharing of electrons Metallic Metal atoms bonded to several other atoms,Ionic Bonding Electron
3、 Transfer,Energetics of Ionic Bonding,As we saw in the last chapter, it takes 495 kJ/mol to remove electrons from sodium.,Energetics of Ionic Bonding,We get 349 kJ/mol back by giving electrons to chlorine.,Energetics of Ionic Bonding,But these numbers dont explain why the reaction of sodium metal an
4、d chlorine gas to form sodium chloride is so exothermic!,The reaction is violently exothermic. We infer that the NaCl is more stable than its constituent elements. Why? Na has lost an electron to become Na+ and chlorine has gained the electron to become Cl-. Note: Na+ has an Ne electron configuratio
5、n and Cl- has an Ar configuration. That is, both Na+ and Cl- have an octet of electrons surrounding the central ion.,Energetics of Ionic Bonding,There must be a third piece to the puzzle. What is as yet unaccounted for is the electrostatic attraction between the newly formed sodium cation and chlori
6、de anion.,Lattice Energy,This third piece of the puzzle is the lattice energy: The energy required to completely separate a mole of a solid ionic compound into its gaseous ions. The energy associated with electrostatic interactions is governed by Coulombs law:,Lattice energy depends on the charges o
7、f the ions and the sizes of the ions k is a constant (8.99 x 10 9 Jm/C2), Q1 and Q2 are the charges on the ions, and d is the distance between ions. Lattice energy increases as * The charges on the ions increase * The distance between the ions decreases.,NaCl forms a very regular structure in which
8、each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl- ions. Similarly, each Cl- ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions. There is a regular arrangement of Na+ and Cl- in 3D. Note that the ions are packed as closely as possible. Note that it is not easy to find a molecular formula to describe the ionic lattice.,Energetics o
9、f Ionic Bond Formation The formation of Na+(g) and Cl-(g) from Na(g) and Cl(g) is endothermic. Why is the formation of NaCl(s) exothermic? The reaction NaCl(s) Na+(g) + Cl-(g) is endothermic (H = +788 kJ/mol). The formation of a crystal lattice from the ions in the gas phase is exothermic: Na+(g) +
10、Cl-(g) NaCl(s) H = -788 kJ/mol,Energetics of Ionic Bonding,By accounting for all three energies (ionization energy, electron affinity, and lattice energy), we can get a good idea of the energetics involved in such a process.,Vaporize the metal (enthalpy of vaporization) Na (s) Na (g) Break diatomic
11、nonmetal molecules (if applicable) (bond enthalpy) Cl2 (g) Cl- Remove electron(s) from metal (ionization energy) Na (g) Na+ (g) + e-,Born-Haber Cycle Application of Hesss Law,4 Add electron(s) to nonmetal (electron affinity) Cl (g) + e- Cl- (g),5 Put ions together to form compound (lattice energy) N
12、a+ + Cl- NaCl (s),Overall Reaction: Na (s) + Cl2 (g) NaCl (s) This is useful because all quantities are directly measurable except lattice energy. The Born-Haber cycle can be used to calculate lattice energy from the other values.,Lattice Energy,Lattice energy, then, increases with the charge on the
13、 ions.,It also increases with decreasing size of ions.,Examples Which in each pair would have the greatest lattice energy? LiF or LiCl NaCl or MgCl2 KBr or KI MgCl2 or MgO CaO or NaF,Examples Which in each pair would have the greatest lattice energy? LiF or LiCl NaCl or MgCl2 KBr or KI MgCl2 or MgO
14、CaO or NaF,Energetics of Ionic Bonding,These phenomena also helps explain the “octet rule.”,Metals, for instance, tend to stop losing electrons once they attain a noble gas configuration because energy would be expended that cannot be overcome by lattice energies.,November 17,Properties of ionic com
15、pounds/ Naming ionic compounds COVALENT BONDS LEWIS STRUCTURES RESONANCE STRUCTURES EXCEPTIONS TO OCTECT RULE STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS,Properties of Ionic Substances,Crystalline structure, result from electrostatic forces that keep ions in a rigid well defined three dimensional arrangement. hard
16、and brittle. Represented by empirical formulas High melting points Do not conduct electricity in the solid state but they conduct electricity when are dissolved in water or in the liquid state,Naming Ionic Compounds,Binary compounds ending ide When metal has several oxidation states indicate the o.n
17、. with the stock system. Examples Lead (IV) oxide Manganese (III) Nitrate Iron (II) Phosphate Calcium Sulfate,COVALENT BONDING,Sharing of electrons. Typical bond between non metals. Can be polar or non polar. Can be single, double or triple bonds.,General properties of substances containing covalent
18、 bonds,They are molecular substances. Generally they have low melting points. They exists in the 3 states. In the solid state many are pliable (like plastics). They are not conductors of heat or electricity.,Naming Covalent Compounds,Use IUPAC nomenclature with roman numerals for the oxidation numbe
19、rs,Bond Types and Nomenclature In general, the least electronegative element is named first. The name of the more electronegative element ends in ide. Compounds are named according to their ions (or perceived ions), including the charge on the cation if it is variable. Compounds of metals with high
20、O.N. have properties similar to covalent compounds and sometimes are named using the convention for molecular compounds Mn2O7 can be called Dimanganese heptoxide or Manganese(VII)oxide,Bond Types and Nomenclature,Bond Types and Nomenclature,Covalent Bonding,In these bonds atoms share electrons. Pair
21、s of electrons become the glue that bind to atoms together. There are several electrostatic interactions in these bonds: Attractions between electrons and nuclei Repulsions between electrons Repulsions between nuclei,Polar Covalent Bonds,Although atoms often form compounds by sharing electrons, the
22、electrons are not always shared equally.,Fluorine pulls harder on the electrons it shares with hydrogen than hydrogen does. Therefore, the fluorine end of the molecule has more electron density than the hydrogen end.,Electronegativity:,The ability of atoms in a molecule to attract electrons to itsel
23、f. On the periodic chart, electronegativity increases as you go from left to right across a row. from the bottom to the top of a column.,Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Difference in electronegativity is a gauge of bond polarity: electronegativity differences between 0 and 0.5 result in non-pola
24、r covalent bonds (equal or almost equal sharing of electrons); electronegativity differences around between 0.5 and 2 result in polar covalent bonds (unequal sharing of electrons); electronegativity differences greater that 2 result in ionic bonds (transfer of electrons).,Non Polar Covalent bonds Eq
25、ual electron sharing,Happens between atoms with same electronegativity. All diatomic molecules have non polar covalent bonds!,Polar Covalent Bonds,When two atoms share electrons unequally, a bond dipole results. The dipole moment, , produced by two equal but opposite charges separated by a distance,
26、 r, is calculated: = Qr It is measured in debyes (D).,Polar Covalent Bonds,The greater the difference in electronegativity, the more polar is the bond.,Lewis Structures (Lewis electron-dot structures),Lewis structures are representations of molecules showing all electrons, bonding and nonbonding. A
27、line between 2 atoms represents a pair of electrons (2 electrons = 1 line ),Multiple Bonds It is possible for more than one pair of electrons to be shared between two atoms (multiple bonds): One shared pair of electrons = single bond (e.g. H2); Two shared pairs of electrons = double bond (e.g. O2);
28、Three shared pairs of electrons = triple bond (e.g. N2). Generally, bond distances decrease as we move from single through double to triple bonds.,Drawing Lewis Structures,Add the valence electrons. Write symbols for the atoms and show which atoms are connected to which. Complete the octet for the c
29、entral atom, then complete the octets of the other atoms. Place leftover electrons on the central atom. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, try multiple bonds.,Writing Lewis Structures,Find the sum of valence electrons of all atoms in the polyatomic ion or molecule.
30、If it is an anion, add one electron for each negative charge. If it is a cation, subtract one electron for each positive charge.,PCl3,5 + 3(7) = 26,Writing Lewis Structures,The central atom is the least electronegative element that isnt hydrogen. Connect the outer atoms to it by single bonds.,Keep t
31、rack of the electrons: 26 6 = 20,Writing Lewis Structures,Fill the octets of the outer atoms.,Keep track of the electrons: 26 6 = 20 18 = 2,Writing Lewis Structures,Fill the octet of the central atom.,Keep track of the electrons: 26 6 = 20 18 = 2 2 = 0,Writing Lewis Structures,If you run out of elec
32、trons before the central atom has an octet form multiple bonds until it does.,Examples Draw Lewis Structures for each: H2O CO2 NCl3 SO2 SO3,PRACTICE LEWIS STRUCTURES FORMAL CHARGE EXCEPTIONS TO OCTECT RULE a) Atoms with fewer than 8 valence e- b) Atoms with more than 8 valence e- c) Molecules with o
33、dd number of e- RESONANCE,Formal Charge It is possible to draw more than one Lewis structure with the octet rule obeyed for all the atoms. To determine which structure is most reasonable, we use formal charge. Formal charge is the charge on an atom that it would have if all the atoms had the same el
34、ectronegativity.,To calculate formal charge: All nonbonding electrons are assigned to the atom on which they are found. Half the bonding electrons are assigned to each atom in a bond. Formal charge is: valence electrons - number of bonds - lone pair electrons,Writing Lewis Structures,To assign forma
35、l charges. For each atom, count the electrons in lone pairs and half the electrons it shares with other atoms. Subtract that from the number of valence electrons for that atom: The difference is its formal charge.,Writing Lewis Structures,The best Lewis structure is the one with the fewest charges.
36、puts a negative charge on the most electronegative atom.,Formal Charge Consider: For C: There are 4 valence electrons (from periodic table). In the Lewis structure there are 2 nonbonding electrons and 3 from the triple bond. There are 5 electrons from the Lewis structure. Formal charge: 4 - 5 = -1.,
37、Formal Charge Consider: For N: There are 5 valence electrons. In the Lewis structure there are 2 nonbonding electrons and 3 from the triple bond. There are 5 electrons from the Lewis structure. Formal charge = 5 - 5 = 0. We write:,Examples Determine the formal charge on each atom for each: H2O CO2 N
38、Cl3 SO2 SO3,Formal Charge The most stable structure has: the lowest formal charge on each atom, the most negative formal charge on the most electronegative atoms. Resonance Structures Some molecules are not well described by Lewis Structures. Typically, structures with multiple bonds can have simila
39、r structures with the multiple bonds between different pairs of atoms,Resonance,This is the Lewis structure we would draw for ozone, O3.,-,+,Resonance,But this is at odds with the true, observed structure of ozone, in which both OO bonds are the same length. both outer oxygens have a charge of 1/2.,
40、Resonance,One Lewis structure cannot accurately depict a molecule such as ozone. We use multiple structures, resonance structures, to describe the molecule.,Resonance,Just as green is a synthesis of blue and yellow ozone is a synthesis of these two resonance structures.,Resonance,In truth, the elect
41、rons that form the second CO bond in the double bonds below do not always sit between that C and that O, but rather can move among the two oxygens and the carbon. They are not localized, but rather are delocalized.,Resonance,The organic compound benzene, C6H6, has two resonance structures. It is com
42、monly depicted as a hexagon with a circle inside to signify the delocalized electrons in the ring.,EXCEPTION TO THE OCTECT RULE BOND STRENGTH,Exceptions to the Octet Rule,There are three types of ions or molecules that do not follow the octet rule: Ions or molecules with an odd number of electrons.
43、Ions or molecules with less than an octet. Ions or molecules with more than eight valence electrons (an expanded octet).,Odd Number of Electrons,Though relatively rare and usually quite unstable and reactive, there are ions and molecules with an odd number of electrons. ClO2 NO NO2 O2- superoxide io
44、n,Molecules with odd # of e-,It is impossible to draw a structure obeying the octet rule. They are called free radicals,Fewer Than Eight Electrons,Consider BF3: Giving boron a filled octet places a negative charge on the boron and a positive charge on fluorine. This would not be an accurate picture
45、of the distribution of electrons in BF3.,Fewer Than Eight Electrons,Therefore, structures that put a double bond between boron and fluorine are much less important than the one that leaves boron with only 6 valence electrons.,Fewer Than Eight Electrons,The lesson is: If filling the octet of the cent
46、ral atom results in a negative charge on the central atom and a positive charge on the more electronegative outer atom, dont fill the octet of the central atom.,BF3 reacts very energetically with molecules having an unshared pair of electrons that can be used to form a bond with B Example formation
47、of NH3BF3,More Than Eight Electrons,The only way PCl5 can exist is if phosphorus has 10 electrons around it. It is allowed to expand the octet of atoms on the 3rd row or below. Presumably d orbitals in these atoms participate in bonding.,More Than Eight Electrons,Even though we can draw a Lewis stru
48、cture for the phosphate ion that has only 8 electrons around the central phosphorus, the better structure puts a double bond between the phosphorus and one of the oxygens.,More Than Eight Electrons,This eliminates the charge on the phosphorus and the charge on one of the oxygens. The lesson is: When
49、 the central atom is on the 3rd row or below and expanding its octet eliminates some formal charges, do so.,Ions with expanded shell,ICl4- XeF2 ClF4-,Strengths of Covalent Bonds,The energy required to break a covalent bond is called the bond dissociation enthalpy, D. That is, for the Cl2 molecule, D(Cl-Cl) is given by H for the reaction: Cl2(g) 2Cl(g). When more than one bond is broken: CH4(g) C(g) + 4H(g) H = 1660 kJ the bond enthalpy is a fraction of H for the atom