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1、Translation Theory and the NON Literary text,Belinda Maia Universidade do Porto,Acknowledgements,This lecture is based to a large extent on: MUNDAY, Jeremy. 2001. Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge VENUTI, Lawrence. (Ed.) 2000. The Translation S
2、tudies Reader. London and New York: Routledge. BUT the implications for the NON literary text are my own responsibility,A few general distinctions,Translating v. interpreting Source language/text SL / ST Target language/text - TL / TT Intralingual v. interlingual v. intersemiotic translation Transla
3、tion as language learning Contrastive linguistics Comparative literature,“Translation Studies” self-perception,Many people today think that Translation Studies is mainly: Literary theory Cultural studies And, possibly: Communication studies Stylistics & Genre analysis,Translation Theory - TT perspec
4、tive from Philosophy,Linguistic philosophy - attempts to discover WHAT language means: the ideal language(s) of logic etc. ordinary language philosophy Philosophy of language attempts to find out HOW language means: certain general features of language such as meaning, reference, truth, verification
5、, speech acts and logical necessity Philosophy of linguistics - the study of language through linguistics,TT perspective from Philosophy of Linguistics,Structuralism - language reflects structure of thought, culture and society Transformational-Generative grammar - underlying universal language Func
6、tionalism - Language and its social functions Cognitivism - Language as it reflects our cognitive appraisal of the world, categorization of experience and use of metaphor,TT perspective from Linguistics,Linguists perceive it as related to: Contrastive linguistics Pragmatics Discourse Analysis Stylis
7、tics Once dismissed as useless to TT all of these areas have been re-animated by corpora linguistics,TT perspective from Information Technoclogy,IT specialists are increasingly fascinated by human language and: Machine assisted translation Machine Translation Knowledge Engineering Information Retrie
8、val Artificial Intelligence,TT - the professional perspective,Translator training Interpreter training Translation aids Translation criticism Translation quality Translation policy Professional translation standards,Translation Theories,The objectives of this seminar are: To give a general outline o
9、f translation theories in this century To show how these theories apply to non literary texts To demonstrate that translation practice can benefit from theory,Translation theories,Most TT is: Product-orientated focuses the translation Function-orientated examines the context and purpose of the trans
10、lation Process-orientated analyses the psychology of translation and process But usually has elements of all three,Partial theories of translation,Medium restricted man or machine? Area restricted specific languages/cultures Rank-restricted word/sentence/text Text-type restricted different genres Ti
11、me-restricted historical view Problem-restricted specific problems, e.g equivalence,Problems,Position of Translation Studies in academia Split between theory and practice Translation teachers fear of theory Researchers still encouraged to focus on literature Therefore teacher/researcher faced with d
12、ilemma,Early distinctions,People have been arguing for centuries about literal v. free v. faithful translation word-for-word v. sense-for-sense For example: Cicero, St Jerome, St Augustine, Martin Luther, tienne Dolet, Alexander Tytler, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm v
13、on Humboldt, Arthur Schopenhauer See Robinson (1997/2002),Bible translation,Bassnett (1991: 45-50) - “The history of Bible translation is accordingly a history of western culture in microcosm“. St. Jeromes translation into Latin in 384 A.D. John Wycliffe (1330-84)and the Lollards William Tyndale (14
14、94-1536) burnt at stake Martin Luther New Testament 1522, Old Testament 1534 Try Biblegateway: http:/ Quran,See University of Southern California: http:/www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Warning: “Note that any translation of the Quran immediately ceases to be the literal word of Allah, and hence cannot b
15、e equated with the Quran in its original Arabic form. In fact, each of the translations on this site is actually an interpretation which has been translated.“,Science in Translation a historical view,Scott L. Montgomery. 2000. Science in Translation. Movements of Knowledge through Cultures and Time.
16、 University of Chicago Press. Describes how scientific texts have been translated, adapted, revised and added to down the centuries e.g. Western Astronomy Greek and Arabic Science Japanese Science,Further reading,HERMANS, Theo & Ubaldo Stecconi. 2002. Translators as Hostages to History. From the Eur
17、opean Commissions Theory meets Practice Seminars at: http:/europa.eu.int/comm/translation/theory/lectures/2001_01_18_history.pdf,Linguistic theories of translation,Language Universals v. Linguistic Relativism Science of translation Equivalence Semantic and communicative translation Korrespondenz and
18、 quivalenz Translation shifts Discourse and register analysis,Language Universals v. Linguistic Relativism,Language Universals presuppose that languages and/or our capacity for language are universal and/or innate long history leading to Chomsky and beyond Language Relativism different languages sho
19、w us different ways of viewing the world Sapir-Whorf theory and most translation theory,Science of translation,Nida (1964) Linguistic meaning Referential or denotative meaning Emotive or connotative meaning Hierarchical structuring Componential analysis Semantic structure analysis Formal and dynamic
20、 equivalence Applications to Bible translation,Chomsky and TT From Nida & Taber (1969:33),From Nida (1964: 185-7),From Munday (2001: 50),Equivalence,Roman Jacobson (1959/2000) “Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics Discusses equivalence
21、at level of obligatory grammar and lexicon, for example: gender aspect semantic fields,Equivalence at word level Baker (1992) Chapter 2,Morphology lexical and syntactic Lexical Meaning Propositional v. Expressive meaning Presupposed meaning Evoked meaning dialect geographical, temporal, social Regis
22、ter field/tenor/mode of discourse Semantic fields and lexical sets,Equivalence above word level Baker (1992) Chapter 3,Collocation Collocational range and markedness Collocation and register Collocational meaning Idioms and Fixed Expressions,Grammatical equivalence Baker (1992) Chapter 4,Grammatical
23、 vs. Lexical categories The Diversity of Grammatical Categories: Number Gender Person Tense and Aspect Voice Word Order,Newmark (1981),Semantic / communicative translation at level of: Transmitter/addressee focus Culture Time and origin Relation to ST Use of form of SL Form of TL Appropriateness Cri
24、terion for evaluation,Koller (1976/89) Korrespondenz and quivalenz,Denotative equivalence Connotative equivalence Text-normative equivalence Pragmatic equivalence Formal equivalence,Vinay & Darbelnet (1977/2000) Translation shifts,Direct translation: Borrowing Calque Literal translation Oblique tran
25、slation Transposition Modulation Equivalence Adaptation Function at the level of the lexicon, syntax and message,Translation shifts,Catford (1965/2000) level shifts category shifts: structural class unit or rank intra-system Van Leuven-Zwart (1989/90) 8 categories and 37 sub-categories!,Linguistic t
26、heories and translation,Most of these theories are considered linguistic and are useful for teaching translation Most translation occurs at the linguistic level at some stage of the process However, too much stress on linguistic levels can have negative effect at the text level,Halliday Functional-S
27、ystemic linguistics,Textual equivalence Baker (1992) Chapter 5,Thematic and Information Structures Theme and Rheme Sentence analysis S Od Oi Cs Co Cp Adj Conj Disj Information Structure: Given and New Word Order and Communicative Function,Textual equivalence Baker (1992) Chapter 6,Cohesion Reference
28、 Substitution and Ellipsis Conjunction Lexical Cohesion,Translation Quality Assessment House (1997),Focus on the function of the text,Baker (1992) Chapter 7 - Pragmatic equivalence Reiss (1970s) Functional approach Holz-Mntarri (1984) Translational action Vermeer (1970s) and Reiss & Vermeer (1984) S
29、kopos theory Nord (1988/91) Text Analysis in Translation,Pragmatic equivalence Baker (1992) Chapter 7,Coherence Presupposition Implicature Grices maxims of Quantity Quality Relevance Manner Politeness,Reiss (1970s) Functional approach,Classification of texts as: informative expressive operative audi
30、omedial,Reiss (1971) Text types,Reiss Chesterman (1989) Text types and varieties,Holz-Mntarri (1984) Translational action,A communicative process involving: The initiator The commissioner The ST producer The TT producer The TT user The TT receiver,Reiss & Vermeer (1984) Skopos theory,Focuses purpose
31、 or skopos of translation Rules A TT is determined by its skopos A TT is message in a target culture/TL concerning a message in a source culture/SL A TT is not clearly reversible A TT must be internally coherent A TT must be coherent with the ST,Nord (1988/91) Text Analysis,Functional approach The i
32、mportance of the translation commission The role of ST analysis The functional hierarchy of translation problems,Polysystem Theory Focus - social and cultural norms,Even-Zohar (1978/2000) Toury (1995) Chesterman (1997) Lambert, Van Gorp, Hermans and the Manipulation school (1985 & 1999),Even-Zohar (
33、1978/2000),Even-Zohar considers translated literature to include: childrens literature thrillers other popular works of fiction, (auto-)biography CONSIDER: informative writing of all kinds e.g. travel, art and sport, journalism, university textbooks.,Toury (1995) Descriptive Translation Studies,Impo
34、rtant point in Translation Studies It encouraged the description of all kinds of translation and provided a wide basis on which to conduct research. The tertium comparationis = attempt to postulate neutral translation v. culturally and socially loaded real translations BUT proved unsatisfactory and
35、abandoned,Tourys norms,initial norm ST norms = adequate translation TT norms = acceptable translation preliminary norms translation policy selection of texts directness of translation is ST an original? operational norms matricial norms or completeness of the TT textual-linguistic norms.,Tourys laws
36、,The law of growing standardization - suggests that the TT standards override those of the original text. This will happen when the TL culture is more powerful. The law of interference - suggests that the ST interferes in the TT by default. This will happen when the SL culture is more powerful.,Ches
37、termans norms (1997),Expectancy norms expectations of readers Allow evaluative judgements Validated by a norm-authority Professional norms Accountability norm ethical norm Communication norm social norm Relation norm linguistic norm (between SL and TL),Polysystem theory and the NON Literary text,Eve
38、n-Zohar, Toury, Chesteman, and others see ST and TT as part of a much wider social and cultural context Although they may consider literary text primary, their theories and suggestions are applicable to all texts,Cultural Studies,Bassnett & Lefevere (1991) dismissed linguistic theories as having mov
39、ed from word to text as a unit, but not beyond and talked of painstaking comparisons between orginals and translations which do not consider the text in its cultural environment. (Munday, 2001: 127),Lefevere (1992) Power and patronage,Professionals within the literary system Patronage outside the li
40、terary system The ideological component The economic component The status component The dominant poetics Literary devices The concept of the role of literature,Examples,Edward Fitzgeralds improvement of work by Omar Khayyam An 18th century translators improvement of Cames Os Lusiadas Lewis Carrolls
41、Alice in Wonderland - softened for children Censorship of bad language Can you think of examples?,Simon (1996) Translation and Gender,Masculine language of translation theorists Overt attempts to promote a feminist stance through translation practice Contribution women have made by translating works
42、 of literature over the centuries Relationship of women and culture as seen through translation the translator is self-effacing creates a new work with a feminine point of view Link between feminist and postcolonial studies,Postcolonial Translation Theory,Spivak (1993/2000) and Niranjana (1992) Cult
43、ural implications - translating between: Colonized and colonizing Politically powerful and weaker languages and cultures Power relations Translational and transnational factors,Example,Spivak (2000) translates out of Bengali into English Try to imagine how an educated bi-lingual (English/Bengali) wo
44、man with international feminist connections might try to translate poetry by Mahasweta Devi a poet in an Indian village. http:/www.emory.edu/ENGLISH/Bahri/Contents.html#Authors,Other Situations,Brazilian cannibalism (1960-1999) Colonized devours colonizer and is enriched Cronin (1996) The Irish lang
45、uage and English imperialism over the centuries,Cultural Studies ETC,My suggestion - surf the Internet with: cultural studies communication studies comparative literature literary studies translation studies,Cultural Studies and the NON Literary text,Cultural Studies theorists: Rarely refer to NON L
46、iterary text Then tend to claim any interesting text as literary! YET Cultural Studies should by its very nature go beyond literature or at least Literature.,Reaction against TL orientated texts,What can be done to avoid too much standardization? How can one avoid social or cultural bias? How can on
47、e truly represent the original?,Antoine Berman (1984) the Experience of the Foreign,Bermans negative analytic of translation focuses the following: Rationalization Clarification Expansion Ennoblement Qualitative impoverishment Quantitative impoverishment,Antoine Berman (1984) the Experience of the F
48、oreign,The destruction of rhythms The destruction of underlying networks of signification The destruction of linguistic patternings The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization The destruction of expressions and idioms The effacement of the superimposition of languages,Venuti (1995)
49、 The Translators Invisibility,Criticizes those, like Toury, who aim to produce value-free norms and laws of translation. Interpretes Lefeveres notions of patronage and its influence in the context of Anglo-American publishing Uses Invisibility to describe the translators situation and activity in contemporary Anglo-American culture,QUESTIONS,Can the Translator