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1、Systemic-Functional Grammar 李鸿蕊,M.A.K. Halliday has developed ideas stemming from Firths theories in the London School. His systemic-functional grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century.,Systemic-Functi
2、onal Linguistics has two components: Systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar.,Systemic Grammar,Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a SYSTEM NETWORK, or MEANING POTENTIAL. And this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. 系统语法的目标是要说明语言作
3、为系统的内部底层关系，它是与意义相关联的可供人们不断选择的若干子系统组成的系统网络，又称“意义潜势“。,The notion of system is made a central explanatory principle, the whole of language being conceived as a “system of systems”. Halliday defines system as a system of potentials, a range of alternatives.,Systemic Grammar,The axis of chain,Surface asp
4、ects of grammar, such as sentence structures, linguistic units, and their ranks (sentence, clause, group, word, and morpheme),The axis of choice,Meaning aspects of grammar,Axis of choice (paradigmatic),Axis of Chain (syntagmatic),The system of a language is made up of many systems. On a general leve
5、l, there is the Chain System and the Choice System.,person,First person,Second person,Third person,number,singular,plural,He eats the apple. All systems have three essential characteristics: The terms in a system are mutually exclusive; A system is finite The meaning of each term in a system depend
6、on the meaning of other terms in the same system.,Entry conditions: Terms or options,Functional Grammar,Three metafunctions,ideational function: language construes human experience interpersonal function: language enacts human relationships textual function: language creates discourse,Ideational fun
7、ction,The ideational function is to express our experiences of both the physical world and mental world. The ideational function mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”.,Transitivity,Transitivity is a grammatical system. It “specifies the different types of process that are recognized in the l
8、anguage, and the structures by which they are expressed”. The basic semantic framework for the representation of process consists of three components: (1) the process itself, (2) participants in the process, and (3)circumstances associated with the process. 及物性是以交待各种过程及其有关的参与者和环境成分来反映语言的概念功能。,Proces
9、s,In English, we make choices between different types of process, participants, circumstances, roles, and members. They are known collectively as the transitivity choices. We first divided the choices into six kinds:,Transitivity,Material process (John kicked the ball),Mental process (John likes Mar
10、y),Relational Process (John is on the sofa),Behavioural process (John laughed),Verbal process (John said it is cold in the room),Existential process (There is a cat on the sofa),Process,1. Material processes: Processes of doing,Material processes are processes of doing. Such a process is expressed b
11、y an action verb (e.g. beat、break、kick), an actor (logical subject) and the goal of the action (logical direct object, usually a noun or a pronoun). Actor and Goal correspond to Agent and Patient. For example:,My brother broke the window. (Actor-Process-Goal),The girl smiles. (Actor-Process),Process
12、,2. Mental Processes: Processes of sensing,Two participants: Senser and Phenomenon. Senser: the conscious being that is feeling, thinking, or seeing. Phenomenon: what is “sensed” felt, thought, seen. Three principal subtypes: (1) perception (seeing, hearing, etc), (2) affection (liking, fearing, etc
13、), (3) cognition (thinking, knowing, etc),e.g. Mary liked the gift. (Senser-Process-Phenomenon),The gift pleased Mary. (Phenomenon-Process-Senser),Process,3. Relational Processes: Processes of Being,Two types: the Attributive and the Identifying. (修饰型/认同型) Attributive process expresses what attribut
14、es a certain object has, or what type it belongs to. (Carrier-Process-Attribute) Identifying process expresses the identical properties of two entities. (Identified-Process-Identifier),Mary is wise. * Wise is Mary.,Tom is the leader. The leader is Tom.,3. Relational Processes: Processes of Being,Hal
15、liday points out that in any identifying clause, there is a Token (the more specific category) and a Value (the more general category).,e.g. John is the monitor.,Identified Process Identifier,Token Value,Process,These two relations can be further classified into the Intensive ( is a ), Circumstantia
16、l ( is at a), and Possessive ( has a).,Process,4. Verbal Processes: Processes of Saying,Verbal processes are those of exchanging information. Commonly used verbs: “say”, “tell”, “talk”, “praise”, “describe”, etc. Participant: Sayer, Receiver, and Verbiage (the verbalization itself or the content of
17、message).,He said that. (Sayer-Process-Verbiage) The notices tells you to keep quite. (Sayer-Process-Verbiage) She asked me some questions. (Sayer-Process-Verbiage),Process,5. Behavioral Processes: Processes of Behaving,Behavioral processes refer to physiological and psychological activities such as
18、 breathing, coughing, dreaming, and crying, etc. Generally only one participant the Behaver (often a human) is involved in these processes.,The girl laughed heartily. (Behaver- Process-Circumstantial) He sighed deeply. (Behaver-Process-Circumstantial),Process,6. Existential Processes: Processes of E
19、xisting or Happening,It is usually realized by there-construction. Existent ：an event, an object or a human being.,There was a storm. (Process-Existent) On the wall there hangs a picture. (Circumstance- Process-Existent),Participants,1. Beneficiary,The beneficiary is the one to whom or for whom the
20、process is said to take place. It appears in material and verbal processes, and sometimes in relational processes.,e.g. He gave her a book.,(Actor Process Beneficiary Goal),He bought a present for her.,(Actor Process Goal Beneficiary),Participants,2. Range,The Range is the element that specifies the
21、 range or scope of the process. It may occur in material, behavioural, mental, and verbal process.,He climbed the mountain. They moved the mountain.,material process,(range),(goal),mental process,He likes it. (it specifies the domain of ones liking),Participants,2. Range,Verbal process: the range el
22、ement expresses the class, quality, or quantity of what is said.,She speaks German. (class) He asked a difficult question. (quality) He made a log speech. (quantity),Circumstances,Extent and Location Manner (Means, Quality and Comparison) Cause (Reason, Purpose and Behalf) Accompaniment Matter Role,
23、1. Extent and Location,Extent is related with the notion of distance and duration (a stretch, a period) whereas Location is related with the notion of place and time (a spot, a point). Both of them can express spatial and temporal meanings.,He walked two miles. (Extent: spatial) He stayed for two we
24、eks. (Extent: temporal) He studied in the classroom. (Location: spatial) He gets up at six oclock. (Location: temporal),2. Manner,Manner consists of three subcategories: Means, Quality, Comparison.,(1a) The pig was beaten with the stick. (1b) She beat the pig with the stick. (2a) The pig was beaten
25、by a stick. (2b) The stick beat the pig.,Means refers to the means or instruments whereby a process takes place.,instrument,actor, agent,2. Manner,Quality represents various meanings such as degree.,e.g. It puzzled him too much.,Comparison represents the meaning of similarity or difference. It is ty
26、pically expressed by a prepositional phrase with like or unlike.,e.g. He worked like a slave. He signed his name differently.,3. Cause,Three subcategories: Reason, Purpose, and Behalf.,Behalf represents entity, “on whose behalf or for whose sake the action is undertaken”.,He died of starvation. (Cau
27、se: Reason) Lets go for a walk. (Cause: Purpose) He put in a word on Johns behalf. (Cause: Behalf),Reason represents the reason for which a process takes place.,Purpose represents the purpose for which a process takes place.,4. Accompaniment,This semantic element represents the meanings and (positiv
28、e accompaniment), not (negative accompaniment) as circumstantials. It is expressed by prepositions or prepositional phrase, e.g. with, without, instead of.,e.g. He came with/without her. He came instead of her. He set out with/without his umbrella.,5.Matter,This element corresponds to the interrogat
29、ive “what about?” and is expressed by prepositions or prepositional phrase, e.g. about, concerning, with reference to.,e.g. I worry about her health. They are talking about the weather.,6. Role,The element corresponds to the interrogative “what is?” and is expressed by prepositions and prepositional
30、 phrase, e.g. as, by way of.,e.g. I came here as a friend. They leave the place untidy by way of protest.,Voice,在功能语法中，语态交待某一过程首先与哪一个参与者建立联系。 Traditional grammar: Voice: active vs. passive Functional grammar: Voice,Middle 中动语态,non-middle 非中动语态,active,passive,middle voice: only one participant involv
31、ed The glass broke. The baby stood up. non-middle voice: two participants or more She gave me this book. The landlady wont sell. active: They have sold all the tickets. (actor) passive: All the tickets have been sold by them. (goal) He rose to speak, and was listened to with enthusiasm by the great
32、crowd present.,Interpersonal function,The interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act. 语言可以用来与他人进行交往， 建立和保持人际关系。语言还具有表达说话者的身份，地位，态度，动机，及其对事物的推断，判断和评价等功能。
33、This function is realized by mood and modality.,Speech roles and functions,Mood,A: The dukes given away that teapot, hasnt he? B: Oh, has he? A: Yes, he has. B: No, he hasnt! A: I wish he had. B: He hasnt, but he will. A: Will he? B: He might. Mood: Subject + Finite. Residue: Predicator, Complement
34、& Adjunct The boy will never write the report. Subject finite adjunct predicator complement,Declarative vs. Interrogative,Imperative,modality,Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgment or making a prediction. 情态指的是说话者对自己所讲的命题的成功性和有效性的判断。 Modalization: (information)从可能性或经常性角度来看信息的可靠
35、性 Probability: 可能性阶 （possible, probable, certain) Usuality: 经常性阶 （sometimes, usually, always) 限定性情态动词 That will be John. 表示概率或频率的情态副词 Thats probably John. 两者并用 That will probably John.,Modulation: （Goods & Service） 在命令中，涉及听话者执行某一行为的职责和义务 Obligation: 责任阶 （allowed, supposed, required) 在提供中，关系到说话者实施某一行
36、为的倾向和意愿 Inclination: 倾向性阶 （willing, anxious, determined) 1.限定性情态动词 You should take it. 2. 被动词组 You are supposed to know that. 3. 形容词 I am anxious to help him.,The textual metafunction,“The textual metafunction creates discourse“ The textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to
37、 make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. Theme vs. Rheme Cohesion,Theme vs. Rheme,Theme the starting point of the message. first constituent in the clause Simple theme (单项主位：只包括表示概念意义的成分）,Mu
38、ltiple Themes（复项主位：除了概念意义，还包括表示语篇意义和人际意义的成分）,Theme Choice in the Non-Declarative,Wh-Questions What happened to her? Yes/No Questions Did he tell you where I was? Imperative Dont cry about it. Have a cup of tea. Lets have a look at this recipe Exclamative What a nice plant youve got! How nice Helen i
39、s!,Unmarked (Theme = Subject): The two Indians stood waiting. The Indian who was rowing them was working very hard. But I will have some photographs taken. There was no need of that. Marked (Theme Subject): Across the bay they found the other boat. In February 1979 he was awarded the George Cross po
40、sthumously. And when you get down there you find he hasnt actually got any. That I dont know.,Unmarked vs. Marked,Cohesion,Grammatical cohesion: reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction. Lexical cohesion: repetition, synonymy/ antonymy, hyponymy/meronymy, collocation,1. Reference: (人称代词，指示代词，比
41、较词语如more, other等） John works in the Department of English. He teaches linguistics. John has passed the exam. This is what I have been told. This is no good. Id like to have the other one. 2. Ellipsis (省略交际双方可根据上下文填补的成分) My father planned and my brother built all these houses. How old are you, boy? S
42、even, sir.,Substitution (用一个简单成分替代另一个成分） Has John passed the exam? I think so. I have lost my watch. Get a new one. Conjunction (通过连接成分体现语篇中各种逻辑关系，如and, but, because, therefore, however),Repetition Gentlemen may cry peace, peace but theres no peace. The journey which has brought me to Peking has bee
43、n a very long one. Long when measured in miles. Long when measured in time. synonymy/ antonymy Everyone cheered. The leader acknowledge the applause. He fell asleep. What woke him was a loud crash.,hyponymy/meronymy After an hour or so the sun was rapidly sinking, the white clouds had turned red, the hills were violet, the woods purple, the valleys black. A big tree with a thick trunk and outspread branches was nearby. Collocation Shake your chains to earth like dew which in sleep have fallen on you!,精品课件资料分享,SL出品,