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1、_ SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirely voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising there
2、from, is the sole responsibility of the user.” SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be reaffirmed, revised, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions. Copyright 2007 SAE International All rights reserved. No part of this publication m
3、ay be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER: Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) Tel: 724-776-4970 (outside USA)
4、 Fax: 724-776-0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org SAE WEB ADDRESS: http:/www.sae.org AIR5699 AEROSPACE INFORMATION REPORT Issued 2007-11 A Guide for the Damaging Effects of Tire and Wheel Failures RATIONALE This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is prepared to aid engineers and technicians in th
5、e understanding of the damaging effects caused by tire and wheel failures. Historical data is used to describe what has occurred to better understand what can happen in and around aircraft wheel wells. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. SCOPE3 2. REFERENCES3 2.1 Applicable Documents 3 2.1.1 SAE Publications.3 2.2
6、 FAA/JAA/EASA Documents3 2.3 Other References4 3. REGULATION HISTORY AND INDUSTRY INITIATIVES4 3.1 Rulemaking and Requirements Changes Pertaining to Tire and Wheel Threats.4 3.1.1 Regulation Changes .4 3.1.2 Industry Initiatives .5 3.1.3 JAA TGM/25/08.5 4. IN-SERVICE OPERATIONAL DATA5 4.1 NTSB Data5
7、 4.2 Analysis of NTSB Data .8 5. OEM COLLECTED DATA.8 5.1 Major Aircraft Manufacturer Provided Database 8 5.2 Other Data.11 6. DISCUSSIONS CONCERNING THE DATA.11 6.1 NTSB and Aircraft Manufacturer Data Grouped Together .11 6.2 Analysis of Mitigating Activity11 6.3 Conclusions and Recommendations12 7
8、. NOTES12 7.1 Key Words.12 7.2 Acronyms 13 FIGURE 1 NTSB WHEEL/TIRE EVENTS VS QUANTITY OF AIRCRAFT BY DECADE6 FIGURE 2 DISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS BY CAUSE.7 FIGURE 3 CRITICALITY DISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS .7 FIGURE 4 NTSB EVENTS BY FLIGHT PHASE8 FIGURE 5 CAUSE DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURER DATA.9 F
9、IGURE 6 CRITICALITY DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURER DATA .9 FIGURE 7 CRITICALITY OF MANUFACTURER DATA TIRE TREAD EVENTS10 FIGURE 8 CRITICALITY ASSESSMENT OF MANUFACTURER DATA TIRE PRESSURE EVENTS.10 FIGURE 9 CRITICALITY ASSESSMENT OF MANUFACTURER DATA WHEEL EVENTS.11 FIGURE 10 CAUSE DISTRIBUTION FOR AL
10、L DATA COLLECTED12 Copyright SAE International Provided by IHS under license with SAELicensee=MHI - NAGOYA related to 3944000/3944000013 Not for Resale, 01/23/2008 21:47:48 MSTNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS -,-,- SAE AIR5699 - 2 - TABLE 1 NTSB EVENT DAMAGE DATA5 TAB
11、LE 2 EVENTS PER AIRCRAFT IN SERVICE.6 TABLE 3 MITIGATION METHOD OF NTSB EVENTS 8 Copyright SAE International Provided by IHS under license with SAELicensee=MHI - NAGOYA related to 3944000/3944000013 Not for Resale, 01/23/2008 21:47:48 MSTNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from I
12、HS -,-,- SAE AIR5699 - 3 - 1. SCOPE Consideration for the damaging effects to aircraft from the failure of wheels and tires should be evaluated. This document discusses the types of problems in-service aircraft have experienced and methodology in place to assist the designers when evaluating threats
13、 for new aircraft design. The purpose of this document is to provide a history of in-service problems, provide a historical summary of the design improvements made to wheels and tires during the past 40 years and to offer methodology which has been used to help designers assess the threat to ensure
14、the functionality of systems and equipment located in and around the landing gear and in wheel wells. 2. REFERENCES 2.1 Applicable Documents The following publications form a part of this document to the extent specified herein. The latest issue of SAE publications shall apply. The applicable issue
15、of other publications shall be the issue in effect on the date of the purchase order. In the event of conflict between the text of this document and references cited herein, the text of this document takes precedence. Nothing in this document, however, supersedes applicable laws and regulations unle
16、ss a specific exemption has been obtained. 2.1.1 SAE Publications Available from SAE International, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) or 724-776-4970 (outside USA), www.sae.org. AS1241 Fire Resistant Phosphate Ester Hydraulic Fluid for Aircr
17、aft ARP4102/3 Flight Deck Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) ARP4752 Aerospace - Design and Installation of Commercial Transport Aircraft Hydraulic Systems AS4833 Aircraft New Tire Standard - Bias and Radial ARP4834 Aircraft Tire Retreading Practice - Bias and Radial AS5440 Hydraulic Systems, Ai
18、rcraft, Design and Installation Requirements for AIR5451 A Guide to Landing Gear System Integration AIR5697 Aerospace Landing Gear - FAA Regulatory History - Airplane Wheels, Tires, and Brakes 2.2 FAA/JAA/EASA Documents AC documents are available from the FAA and can be found online at http:/rgl.faa
19、.gov. AC 20-97B Aircraft Tire Maintenance and Operational Practices, dated 18 April 2005 AC 25-7A Flight Test Guide for Certification of Transport Category Airplanes, Change 1, dated 3 June 1999 AC 25-22 Certification of Transport Airplane Mechanical Systems, dated 14 March 2000 AC 25.491-1 Taxi, Ta
20、keoff and Landing Roll Design Loads, dated 20 October 2000 AC 25.735-1 Brakes and Braking Systems Certification Tests and Analysis, dated 10 April 2002 Copyright SAE International Provided by IHS under license with SAELicensee=MHI - NAGOYA related to 3944000/3944000013 Not for Resale, 01/23/2008 21:
21、47:48 MSTNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS -,-,- SAE AIR5699 - 4 - AC 25.1435-1 Hydraulic System Certification Tests and Analysis, dated 21 May 2001 AC 145-4A Inspection, Retread, Repair, and Alterations of Aircraft Tires, dated 10 July 2006 TGM/25/08 JAA Temporary Gui
22、dance Material TGM/25/08 Wheel and Tire Failure Model, issue 2, dated 7 February 2001 TSO - C26d Aircraft Wheels and Wheel-Brake Assemblies, with Addendum, dated 14 Oct 2004 TSO - C62e Aircraft tires, dated 29 September 2006 TSO - C135 Transport Airplane Wheels and Wheel and Brake Assemblies, dated
23、2 May 2002 2.3 Other References Material related to this subject was presented during SAE A-5 panel meetings from October 2003 through October 2006. Most of the data in this report is from the presentations from the panel meetings. 3. REGULATION HISTORY AND INDUSTRY INITIATIVES 3.1 Rulemaking and Re
24、quirements Changes Pertaining to Tire and Wheel Threats 3.1.1 Regulation Changes Document AIR5697 provides details about all the regulation changes pertaining to aircraft landing gear systems and equipment. Below is a list of the most pertinent changes for wheels and tires: 1974: Order 8100.8 requir
25、es fuse plug demonstration during RTO testing. Same requirements in AC 25-7 (1986) 1979: TSO-C26c Wheels Rev B was issued during 2005 1990: Amdt 25-72 revised 25.733(c)(1) to add a 1.07 factor for tire load ratings 2002: Amdt 25-107; Amended 25.731 - Wheels and 25.735 - Brakes for overpressure and o
26、ver temperature protection of wheels; New AC 25.735-1 & TSO-C135-Worn/New Brake RTOs Copyright SAE International Provided by IHS under license with SAELicensee=MHI - NAGOYA related to 3944000/3944000013 Not for Resale, 01/23/2008 21:47:48 MSTNo reproduction or networking permitted without license fr
27、om IHS -,-,- SAE AIR5699 - 5 - 3.1.2 Industry Initiatives The manufacturers in the wheel and tire industry and aircraft manufacturers have voluntarily introduced improvements. Examples include: Increased applications of brake temperature monitoring systems Increased wheel and tire qualification requ
28、irements More installations of tire pressure monitoring systems Reducing the number of times tires may be retreaded prior to being discarded 3.1.3 JAA TGM/25/08 Prior to the introduction of EASA, the JAA issued temporary guidance material (TGM) to be used by aircraft manufacturers to assist in showi
29、ng compliance to JAR 25.729(f) and JAR 25.1309. This TGM provided threat geometry for bursting tires, flailing tires and wheel rim release. It offered no relief for equipment meeting the latest requirements or for differences in tire construction techniques (Bias vs Radial). SAE Panel A-5-03-01 was
30、formed to address the subject on tire and wheel threat and to validate and/or update the TGM. Although there were presentations provided at panel meetings suggesting that tire retreads may increase the frequency of flailing tread, and that Radial tires produced smaller tire projectiles when bursted
31、than Bias tires, insufficient data was provided to update the TGM. The TGM offers no relief for wheels incorporating over pressure release devices as required in TSO - C135 issued after the TGM was written. The SAE panel was concluded with publication of this AIR. Furthermore, the TGM is intended to
32、 address the protection of systems and equipment from the damaging effects of wheel and tire failures. It provides geometric zones around wheels and tires that should be kept free of critical systems and equipment. While these zones provide reasonable stay out areas for systems and equipment, they d
33、o not address the aircraft structure. If the fuselage is damaged, decompression could occur as shown in the NTSB data discussed below. During the panel meetings there was concern raised pertaining to the fact that JAA/EASA and FAA have not harmonized on the guidance provided in the TGM. The harmoniz
34、ation of the certification requirements for protecting the aircraft from the damaging effects of wheel and tire failures would streamline the certification process. The TGM could be used as a beginning point with additional consideration for recent regulation changes and industry damage reports. 4.
35、IN-SERVICE OPERATIONAL DATA 4.1 NTSB Data A representative from the FAA office in Seattle, Washington retrieved public records of wheel and tire failure events and provided details of the data to the panel for analysis. This data was from events recorded with some level of aircraft damage. It is und
36、erstood that events considered proprietary and events with no damage are not included in this data base. Table 1 provides the NTSB data sorted by the type of damage. Approximately 40 years of data are included from 1966 through 2005. TABLE 1 - NTSB EVENT DAMAGE DATA Type of Damage Quantity of Events
37、 Fatal Accidents 11 Hull Loss with no Fatalities 8 Debries Entered Fuel Tank or Engine11 Airframe Damage 36 Decompression 7 Copyright SAE International Provided by IHS under license with SAELicensee=MHI - NAGOYA related to 3944000/3944000013 Not for Resale, 01/23/2008 21:47:48 MSTNo reproduction or
38、networking permitted without license from IHS -,-,- SAE AIR5699 - 6 - Analyzing the NTSB data provides an opportunity to understand how events have evolved during the time period when regulations and industry initiatives to enhance aircraft safety have been introduced. Figure 1 provides the events g
39、rouped by decade along with the fleet growth. The more important regulations introduced are also shown. The data for the 1960s and 2000s represent partial decades. 0 5 10 15 20 1960s 1970s 1980s1990s2000s Decade NTSB Events (Bars) 0 4000 8000 12000 16000 Jet Aircraft In Service (Line) FIGURE 1 - NTS
40、B WHEEL/TIRE EVENTS VS QUANTITY OF AIRCRAFT BY DECADE This figure can be interpreted that events have not grown proportional to fleet size, perhaps due to enhanced safety regulations. Excluding the 1960s and the 2000s, as they encompass NTSB data for only a portion of the decade, leaves three decade
41、s to compare. The ratio of NTSB events to total aircraft flying is shown in Table 2 below. This indicates that the number of events per aircraft in service has reduced during the 1980s and 1990s. TABLE 2 - EVENTS PER AIRCRAFT IN SERVICE Decade 1970s 1980s 1990s NTSB Event per Quantity of A/C in Serv
42、ice 0.0037 0.0025 0.0013 Figure 2 provides distribution of main and nose tire events. It is interesting to note that none of the events are considered to be caused by a wheel problem. Figure 3 provides a distribution of the events using a damage assessment consistent to the one provided in the OEM d
43、ata shown later in this report. Notice that there are no events in the “None” category for the NTSB data. With no aircraft damage, apparently no report to the NTSB is filed Figure 4 provides the distribution of the flight phase when the event occurred. Tire TSO-C62c Tire Changes Retread AC145-4 Nitr
44、ogen AD87-08-09 Wheel TSO C-135 Tire AC145-4A AC20-97B Copyright SAE International Provided by IHS under license with SAELicensee=MHI - NAGOYA related to 3944000/3944000013 Not for Resale, 01/23/2008 21:47:48 MSTNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS -,-,- SAE AIR5699 - 7 -
45、 1966-2005 Aircraft Events 3 2 8 43 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Main Tire BurstMain Tire Flailing Nose Tire BurstNose Tire Flailing FIGURE 2 - DISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS BY CAUSE Damage Assessment of Events 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% SubstantialMajorMinorNone FIGURE 3 - CRITICALITY D
46、ISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS Copyright SAE International Provided by IHS under license with SAELicensee=MHI - NAGOYA related to 3944000/3944000013 Not for Resale, 01/23/2008 21:47:48 MSTNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS -,-,- SAE AIR5699 - 8 - Flight Phase of Tire Events
47、 38 8 7 2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Take OffFlightLandingTaxi FIGURE 4 - NTSB EVENTS BY FLIGHT PHASE 4.2 Analysis of NTSB Data An Analysis was performed to assess how regulation changes or industry practices would mitigate any of the events. Table 3 provides the results of the mitigation analysis. Th
48、e total of the percentages in the table is greater than 100 as several events were considered to benefit from more than one of the mitigation categories. TABLE 3 - MITIGATION METHOD OF NTSB EVENTS Mitigation Category Certification Requirements to Mitigate Category Quantity of Events Mitigated Service tires with nitrogen Yes (AD 87-08-09) 39% TPMS No (Daily pressure checks recommended in AC 20-97B) 38% Improve