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1、 A Study of Middle School English Grammar Teaching in the CLT Framework 交际语言教学模式下中学英语语法教学研究 ByZhan San A Thesis Submitted to the School of Foreign Languages in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the Degree of Bachelor of ArtsQuancheng Institute ofUniversity of Jinan Jinan, ChinaJune 9, 2011
2、Abstract（小三，Times New roman，加黑，居中，1.5行距）As an essential part of language, grammar plays an important role in the process of language learning. Grammar teaching is a heatedly discussed topic in foreign language teaching circle. Since the application of CLT in China, grammar teaching has caused more c
3、oncern than before. This thesis illustrates the necessity of grammar teaching in the theoretical and practical perspectives. In theory, the goal of CLT is to cultivate students communicative competence and grammatical competence is part of it, so CLT does not exclude grammar teaching but include it.
4、 In practice, Chinese realistic conditions determine that grammar should be taught in the CLT framework. Then this thesis proposes some strategies to improve grammar teaching, which tends to give some enlightenment to English teachers. （小四，times new roman, 1.5行距）Key words:（小四加黑，word不大写，与上文空一行） gramm
5、ar teaching; CLT (communicative language teaching); communicative competence; grammatical competence（各词用分号隔开）摘 要（小三，宋体，居中，加黑，两字之间空两格，1.5行距） 语法作为语言的重要组成部分，在语言学习中起着非常重要的作用。语法教学是外语教学界讨论最多的话题。自中国实施交际教学法以来，语法教学更是受到了前所未有的关注。本文从理论和实际角度探讨了语法教学的必要性。理论上，交际教学法的目标就是培养学生的交际能力，而语法能力是交际能力的一部分，所以交际语言教学模式并不排斥而是包含语法教
6、学；从实际角度看，中国的具体国情决定了在交际语言教学模式下语法必须教。本文又提出了在交际语言教学模式下推进语法教学的几点意见，希望能给广大英语教学工作者提供一些启示。关键词：（小四加黑，与上文空一行）语法教学；交际教学法；语法能力；交际能力（各词用分号隔开）Contents（三号TimesNewRoman加黑居中1.5行距全部一页）1.0 Introduction -12.0 An Introduction to Communicative Language Teaching-22.1 Features of CLT-22.2 Principles of CLT-33.0 Necessity
7、of Grammar Teaching in the CLT Framework-34.0 Realistic Reasons of Teaching Grammar in China-64.1 Environment of English Learning-64.2 Goal of English Learning-74.3 Form of English Assessment-75.0 Strategies of Grammar Teaching in the CLT Framework-75.1 Creating Authentic Situations-85.1.1 Making Fu
8、ll Use of the Classroom-85.1.2 Creating Situations with Pictures-85.2 Organizing Communicative Activities-95.2.1 Role-playing- 9 5.2.2 Adopting Discussion and Debate-9 5.3 Teaching Grammar in Discourse-10 5.4 Making Old Things New-116.0 Conclusion-12Bibliography-13 Acknowledgements-15（目录四号，TimesNewR
9、oman， 1.5行距，全部一页）A Study of Cultural Differences on Translation of English News Headlines1.0 Introduction（一级标题小三加黑，times new roman,左对齐）Abstract:Wi th the help of main characterist ics of English news headlines and plenty of practical examples, this paper discusses some t ranslating methods in render
10、ing English new s headlines into Chinese from seven aspect s w hich includes acronyms, participles, punctuat ion marks and rhetorical devices.Key word: new s headlines; English; t ranslation随着国际交流的日益频繁 英语新闻以其内容新颖 语言现代 传播的时效性强 为社会生活提供了获取中外信息的便捷渠道 但是文化上的差异 尤其是东西方文化的差异 导致不同文化背景下的人对于同一新闻报道中的事件或理念有着不同的理解
11、和解释 在英语新闻翻译时若不注意文化背景 可能会造成新闻的受众与原媒体 原作者之间理解上的差异甚至误解 因此 英语新闻中文化因素的翻译越来越受到重视.英语新闻翻译东西方文化差异形成的原因: 1地域环境的差异 跨文化交际学表明 特定的生长环境使人们养成了特定的思维定式 多数人类学者 社会学家都认为一个国家的地理条件在不同程度上对文化起着重要的作用 比如 英国是一个岛国 对水和渔业有着较深的感情 而中国位于亚欧大陆上 人们的生活与土地耕作息息相关 所产生的语言文化现象就存在差异 例如 英语中有许多关于鱼的习语 说某个人喝水量大而快 英语就用鱼作比喻 叫做 drink like a fish 而在汉
12、语中却用 牛饮 这个词 又如 说某人花钱浪费 大手大脚 英语是 spend moneylike water 而汉语则是 挥金如土.2生活习惯的差异 如一则新闻中说微软日前敦促其用户立即登录微软的网站下载并安装一个免费的补丁程序 专业人士称 Until they have this patch in-stalled it will be Swiss cheese any- body can walk in and out of their servers 对于美国人来说 理解这句话非常 容 易 原来瑞士产的奶酪 Swisscheese 最明显的特征就是表面的孔非常多 在这里指视窗操作系统的漏洞很
13、多任何人都可以利用这些漏洞自由进出服务器 可是对于缺乏上述生活背景 没有吃过瑞士奶酪的读者而言 要把这种从生活中走入新闻报道的词汇理解正确还是需要一定的解释和背景知识的.3风俗习惯的差异 各民族的风俗习惯贯穿于社会生活和交际活动中 西方国家和中国风俗习惯差异通常表现在 个人主义 和 集体主义 观念 社会关系 友谊义务等方面 因此我们在翻译时应了解风俗文化差异 根据具体情况选用合适的准确的目的语 如以 20 世纪 70 年代初美国总统尼克松访华这一重大新闻事件中曾说过的一句话为例 尼克松说 We twocountries have common interest over andabove ou
14、r differences 这句话如果机械地从字面上理解 很容易翻译成 我们两国具有远远高于我们分歧的共同的利益 而尼克松真正要表达的意思是 我们两国除了有分歧 也有共同的利益 两者中的差异可想而知 虽然前一种译法看上去更让人愉悦 但未能真实反映出原意 事实上本例中的 over and above 并不是常用的在 之上 之意 而是相当于 besides;4宗教信仰差异 中西方信仰的差异对文化的影响相当深远 佛教对中国文化发生过很大影响和作用 中国历史上留下了灿烂辉煌的佛教文化遗产 中国与佛教有关的习语有很多如 借花献佛 临时抱佛脚 人争一口气 佛争一炷香 等 而在信奉基督教的许多西方国家 人们
15、认为世上一切都是上帝的安排 就多见 God helpsthose who help themselves 自助者天助和 go to hell 下地狱去 一类的说法5历史典故的差异 在漫长的历史进程中形成的一些典故已经成为语言文化的一部分 这些历史典故体现了该国的文化色彩 它们的意义往往是不能单单从字面意义上去理解和翻译的 如 9 11 事件发生后 某报道中有这么一句话 Bin LadenGroup the business empire owned by relatives of the world s most wanted man is seeking advice from Britis
16、h public relations firms on how to distance itself from the black sheep of the family此处如果仅仅将 black sheep 一词翻译成 黑色的绵羊 中国读者恐怕不能接受 其实在汉语中也有类似的表达方法即 害群之马 其实 该报道无非要表达这样一个意思 本 拉登家族其他亲戚拥有的商业集团均怕受其牵连 纷纷表示要与本 拉登这一害群之马划清界限6词语内涵的差异 语言与文化之间存在血肉相连的关系 每一种语言都有一些词语具有特定的文化内涵 比如 red 红色 在中国 人们习惯用 红色 表示喜庆 热闹的气氛 但西方文化认为
17、 red 与人的血液颜色一样 所以 red 一词则表示愤怒 气愤等意思 此外 英语中有些词含有丰富的关联意义 cowboy 所包含的意思不仅是词典中注释的 放牛娃 或 牛仔 所能准确表达的 它还具有以下关联意义 吃苦耐劳 酷爱自由 敢于冒险 大量词语看上去与某些汉语词相似 但实际上是 貌合神离 如 political campaign 不是政治运动 而是竞选运动 easy meat 不是可嚼的肉 而是容易上当受骗的人 不了解这些词语真正的内涵 根据结构望文生义就会造成误解文化背景的差异 世界各个民族历史文化传统及政治生活环境的差异 形成了各自特有的文化背景 如我国新闻报刊中两岸 一词专指台湾海
18、峡两岸关系 对于我国人民来说这是不言而喻的 但是 在对外国受众翻译 发展两岸关系 推进祖国和平统一进程 这句话时 其中的 两岸 应补译成 台湾海峡两岸 可译为develop relations between the two sides of the Taiwan Straits and promote the peaceful reunification of the motherland结语总之 新闻翻译的目的是为了传递信息 语言准确规范 清晰易懂是新闻翻译的基本要求和原则 要想达到这个目的译者必须深入地理解原文和译文文化 争取把两种语言文化贯通起来 做到语言通和文化通（小四，times
19、new roman，1.5行距，下同）2.0 An Introduction to Communicative Language Teaching2.1 Features of CLT（二级标题四号加黑，times new roman,左对齐）1. 【 摘 要】作为国际间信息和文化交流的重要手段之一,新闻语篇的翻译是一种典型的跨文化交际活动。就象跨文化交际一样,新闻语篇的翻译中也会出现语用失误Z包括语用语言失误和社交语用失误。 产生语用失误的根源在于译者语境认知能力的局限。 因此Z译者要努力提高语境认知能力Z尤其是要加强文化意识Z培养对文化的感性认识。As one of the importa
20、nt means of international communication, News Text Translation is a typical cross-cultural communication activities. The same as cross-cultural communication, Pragmatic failures are commonly seen in News Text translation Including both pragmalinguistic failure and socialpragmatic failure. On the aut
21、hors part, pragmatic failures usually originate from the limitations of the translators contextual cognitive competence. Therefore, its of vital importance for the translators to improve the contextual cognitive competence. Especially, to enhance (Strengthening) the cultural awareness and cultivate
22、The perceptive competence of cultural knowledge.DOn the basis of previous literature (e.g. Nunan, 1991), the principles of CLT could be summarized as being context-oriented, experience-based and learner-centered.By being context-oriented is meant that a new item should be presented and practiced in
23、context. From a communicative point of view, language items only take on meaning as a result of the context in which it is used, that is to say, an item devoid of context cannot properly be said to have a meaning at all. For example, one word may have many meanings in the dictionary, but it is the c
24、ontext in which it is set that decides which meaning is right and suitable.Learner-centeredness means that learners are the center of the classroom. CLT lays emphasis on learners and learning. Learners are seen as active participants, rather than passive recipients of information provided by the tea
25、cher or the textbook. CLT involves learners in the whole process of learning and makes learners learn by doing. Therefore, teachers are no longer regarded as an authority on language, but a facilitator, a manager and an advisor of learners.3.0 Necessity of Grammar Teaching in the CLT FrameworkAs the
26、 fact that the goal of English teaching is to cultivate learners communicative competence has been accepted by researchers and English teachers, CLT has been widely applied in our country. The emergence of CLT makes some teachers think that CLT is advanced and objects to the traditional method, so t
27、hey neglect grammar teaching in the classroom. However, the overlook of grammar brings about bad influences, that is, students cannot output grammatically correct sentences. Many teachers are confused whether grammar should be taught or not. Of course the answer is affirmative.In fact, CLT does not
28、exclude grammar teaching, and this can be illustrated from the relationship between grammatical competence and communicative competence.According to Hymes, communicative competence refers to the ability of how to use knowledge of rules to understand and produce appropriate language in a variety of s
29、ociocultural settings, and he (1972: 280) thinks communicative competence includes:1. knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language;2. knowledge of rules of speaking (e.g. how to begin and end conversation );3. knowing language function (e.g. agreeing, disagreeing, arguing and advising. et
30、c.);4. knowing how to use language appropriately (talking to a friend is different from talking to your boss);Hymes interpretation of communicative competence puts grammar in the first part, so grammar is necessary to cultivate communicative competence.Latter, Canale and Swain (1980) developed a new
31、 interpretation of communicative competence consisting of four components:1. Grammatical competence. It is the knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, sentence, grammar, semantics and phonology.2. Sociolinguistic competence. It is the knowledge of social-cultural rules of lang
32、uage and discourse.3. Discourse competence. It is the ability to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances.4. Strategic competence. It is the verbal or nonverbal communicative strategies that may be called into action to compensate for brea
33、kdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient competence. Canale and Swain (1980) agreed that both grammatical competence and sociolinguistic competence are important elements in any theoretical framework of communicative competence. They (1980: 5) say: “just as Hymes (
34、1972) was able to say that there are rules of grammar that would be useless without rules of language use, so we feel that there are rules of language use that would be useless without rules of grammar.” So grammar is necessary and essential for communication to take placeLittlewood (2000: 28) sugge
35、sts that the following four domains of skill make up a persons communicative competence and must be recognized in foreign language learning and teaching.1. The learner must attain as high a degree as possible of linguistic competence, that is, he must develop skills in manipulating the linguistic sy
36、stem, to the point where he can use it spontaneously and flexibly in order to express his intended message.2. The learner must distinguish between the forms which he has mastered as a part of his linguistic competence, and the communicative functions which they perform. In other words, items mastere
37、d as part of a linguistic system must also be understood as a part of communicative system.3. The learner must develop skills and strategies for using language to communicate meanings as effectively as possible in concrete situations. He must learn to use feedback to judge his success, and if necess
38、ary, remedy failure by using different language.4. The learner must become aware of the social meaning of language forms. For many learners, this may not entail the ability to vary their own speech to suit different social circumstances, but rather the ability to use generally acceptable forms and a
39、void potential offensive ones.In Littlewoods definition of communicative competence, linguistic competence also occupies a prominent position. He stated the importance of grammar as follows: “A communicative approach to the content of a course need not involve abandoning the use of structural criter
40、ia for selection and sequencing, , Mastery of the structural system is still the basic requirement for using language to communicative ones own meanings” (Littlewood, 2000: 77).Wilkins (1976: 66) also admitted the importance of grammar: “it is taken here to be almost axiomatic that the acquisition o
41、f the grammatical system of a language remains a most important element in language learning. The grammar is the means through which linguistic creativity is ultimately achieved and an inadequate knowledge of the grammar would lead to a serious limitation on the capacity for communication”.From the
42、analysis and statements above, it could be safely concluded that grammar is necessary in the CLT framework, and the application of CLT does not exclude grammar teaching. “Without grammatical knowledge as the foundation, it is impossible for language learners to go far in developing their communicati
43、ve competence of a foreign language” (Gao, 2003: 51).4.0 Realistic Reasons of Teaching Grammar in China4.1 Environment of English Learning According to Krashen (1981), grammar teaching is unnecessary, because language including grammar can emerge as a result of comprehensible input. That is to say,
44、being exposed to the target language environment, learners can naturally acquire it and internalize the grammar rules. This is partly true in acquiring a second language, but English is typically taught as a foreign language in China, and learning plays a more important role than acquisition in the
45、process of mastering English. Second language teaching takes place within the target language community, while foreign language teaching is carried out outside the target language environment, mostly in the classroom. Foreign language learning usually requires more formal instruction for the lack of
46、 environmental support.Acquisition refers to subconscious learning in the natural environment, which is not influenced by explicit formal instruction. Learning a language is a conscious process of language development, which needs the intended and explicit formal instruction in the artificial environment such as the language classroom.As most