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1、Unit one Environmental Engineering环境工程What is this book about？这本书是关于什么的？The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environment problems；their cause，why they are of concern，and how we can control them. The book includes:这本书的目的是使理工科的学生
2、了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因，为什么它们受到关注，以及我们怎样控制它们。这本书包括：l Description of what is meant by environment and environmental systems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么l Information on the basic causes of environmental disturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息l Basic scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problem
3、s and to be able to quantify them理解环境问题本质，并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识l Current state of the technology of environmental control in its application to water，air and pollution problems目前适用于水，空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状l Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the
4、 complex interactions between human activities and nature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷l Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of current technology，but which are not dealt with because of societys lack of will to do so，or in many instance
5、 because of a lack of resources to do so.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少，但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿，或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。Some important definitions 一些重要的定义Where they are first used in this book，definitions are introduced in block form，as shown here，or printed in bold type.如果他们是第一次使用这本书，定义介绍采用块形式，像这里显示的一样，或印成黑体字。Environmen
6、t is the physical and biotic habitat which surrounds us；that which we can see，hear，touch，smell，and taste.环境是围绕在我们周围物质生命的栖息地，在那里我们可以看到，听到，触到，闻到和品尝到。System，according to websters dictionary，is defined as “a set or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unit or organic whole；as，a sol
7、ar system，irrigation system，supply system，the world or universe”.系统，依据韦伯斯特的字典，被定义为“一组或一系列能形成一个整体或者有机整体的相互关联的事物;比如，太阳系统，灌溉系统，供水系统，世界或宇宙” 。Pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the physical，chemical，or biological characteristics of the air，water，or land that can harmfully affect the hea
8、lth，survival，or activities of humans or other living organisms.污染可以被定义为有害影响健康，生存，活动的人或其它生物体的空气，水，或土地的物理，化学或生物特性的不应该有的变化，。When the goal of improving environmental quanlity is taken to be improving human wellbeing，the word “environment” broadens to include all kinds of social，economic，and cultural asp
9、ects. Such broadness is unworkable in many real situations and impractical in a text book designed for a one semester course. Our examination of environmental problems is therefore limited by our definition of “environment”.当改善环境质量的目标是用来改善人类的福祉， “环境” 这个词扩大到包括社会，经济，文化等所有方面的内容。这种扩大化在许多实际情况下是不可行的，在本被设计
10、为一学期课程的教科书中也是不切实际的。因此，我们对环境问题的考察限于我们定义的“环境”。Interaction of Systems互动系统A number of different environmental problems are associated with water, air, or land systems. 许多不同的环境问题都涉及到水，空气，或土壤。Many of these problems will apply only within one of these systems, justifying the breakdown into these categories
11、.许多这些问题只适用于在其中一个系统，这为这些种类中的细目分类提供了充分的理由。Such a classification is also useful for easier comprehension of related problems within one system.这种分类也有助于更容易理解一个系统里的相关问题。Moreover, it is sensible because, for manager and administrative reasons, such subfields as air pollution, water supply, wastewater disp
12、osal, and solid waste disposal are often dealt with separately by governmental agencies.此外，这样做是明智的，因为是行政管理的原因，空气污染，水供应，固体废物处置和废水处理，往往是由政府机构分别处理的。Unfortunately, many important environmental problems are not confined to an air, water, or land system, but involve interactions between systems.很遗憾的是，许多重要
13、的环境问题不只局限于一个空气，水，或土壤系统，更涉及系统之间的相互作用。A current example is the acid rain problem stemming from the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases into the atmosphere from the stacks of generating stations, smelters, and automobile exhausts。目前的一个例子是酸雨问题，根源是许多发电站，冶炼，汽车排出的废气中进入大气的二氧化硫和氮氧化物气体。These g
14、ases are then transported by air currents over wide regions.这些气体被气流运送到广阔的区域。Rainfall “washes them out”, creating acid rain which is harmful to aquatic life, forests, and agricultural crops.雨水“将它们洗去”，产生了对水生生物，森林和农作物有害的酸雨。Two examples of interaction between systems that cause major environmental distu
15、rbances are presented-the buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a global problem, and the acid rain problem, normally of regional nature.两个有关于系统间相互作用引起的环境问题有：空气中的二氧化碳的增加的全球性问题以及具有地域性质的酸雨问题。Environmental Disturbances环境扰乱Many major improvements to our standard of living can be attributed to the appli
16、cation of science and technology.我们的生活水平的许多重大改进，可以归因于科学和技术的应用。A few examples are noted here. Can you think of others?这里举几个例子，你可以想到其他例子吗？The production of more and better quality food生产更多更好的优质食品The creation of housing as protection from extremes from climates and as living space创造能避免极端的气候的保护所和生活空间The
17、 building of fast and reliable means of transportation建设快速和可靠的运输方式The invention of various systems of communication发明各种通信系统The invention of machines to replace human or animal power发明机器来取代人类或动物体力The supply of safe water and the disposal of wastes 安全水的供应和废物处理The elimination of many infectious disease
18、s消灭多种传染疾病The elimination of most waterborne diseases in the developed world through improved water technology在多数发达国家中通过改善水技术来消除大部分水源性疾病The availability of leisure time through greater productivity, providing the opportunity for cultural and recreational activities通过提高生产力，腾出闲暇时间，为进行文化和娱乐活动提供机会The pro
19、tection from the worst effects of natural disasters such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions.防止最严重的自然灾害的影响，如洪水，干旱，地震和火山爆发With these improvements, however, have come disturbing side effects, such as lost arable land, disappearing forests, environmental pollution, and new organism
20、s resistant to controls.然而,随着(科学技术的)发展,产生了不良的副作用,比如,可耕地丢失,森林消失,环境污染,微生物滋长.Many effects originally considered to be just nuisances are now recognized as potential threats to nature and to humans.起初只是让我们觉得讨厌的许多事物现在被认为对自然和人类存在的潜在威胁。In an agrarian society, people lived essentially in harmony with mature
21、, raising food, gathering firewood, and making clothing and tools from the land.在农业社会，人们基本上能与自然和谐地相处,他们在陆地上种植食物,收集木材,做衣服和工具。The wastes from animals and humans were returned to the soil as fertilizer. Few, if any, problems of water, land, or air pollution occurred.动物和人类排放的废物作为肥料又返到土地中。很少有水污染、土地污染、和空气
22、污染问题产生。The cities of ancient times, particularly those of the Roman Empire, had systems to supply water and to dispose of wastes.在古代的城市，特别是像罗马帝国那类，就已经存在供水系统和处置废物系统。The aqueducts supplying the ancient city of Rome (population about 1 million) with safe water from the Cloaca Maxima, the best known and
23、 one of the earliest sewers to be built, are examples of such systems.从一个最早建成之一且最有名的污水管-古罗马大排泄沟，向古代的罗马城市提供安全的水的渠道，就是这样的系统的例子。The municipal technology of ancient cities seems to have been forgotten for many centuries by those who built cities throughout Europe.古代的城市的市政技术似乎已经被那些在整个欧洲建设城市的人遗忘了许多个世纪。Wat
24、er supply and waste disposal were neglected, resulting in many outbreaks of the nineteenth century, it was not realized that improper wastes disposal polluted water supplies with disease-carrying organisms.供水和废物处置的忽略，导致爆发了许多疾病，如痢疾、霍乱、伤寒和其它水传染的疾病。The industrial revolution in nineteenth-century Britai
25、n, Europe, and North America aggravated the environmental problems since it brought increased urbanization.直到19世纪中期，人们才意识到废物的不正确处置导致引起疾病的微生物污染了供水。Both phenomena, urbanization and industrialization, were and are fundamental cause of water and air pollution which the cities of that time were unable to
26、 handle. 19世纪在英国、欧洲和北美的工业革命带来了工业化和城市化的增加，也加重了环境问题。城市化和工业化在过去和现在都是引起水和空气污染的根本原因，这在当时的城市还不能够处理。 Rapid advances in technology for the treatment of water and the partial treatment of wastewater took place in the developed countries over the next few decades. This led to a dramatic decrease in the incide
27、nce of waterborne diseases.在接下来的几十年，水处理和废水的部分处理技术在发达国家快速发展，这导致水传染疾病的发生率大量地减少。Note that all wastes discharge into environment, and thus pollute out water, air, and land system.注意，所有的废物排放到环境中都会污染我们的水、空气和土地系统。Unit Two Historical Overview of Hazardous Substance Disposal in the USA回顾美国处置危险物品的历史Hazardous
28、substance disposal practices in the United States have traveled full circle.在美国，处理危险物品的做法走过了迂回的道路。Prior to 1978 there were few if any regulations regarding the disposal of these materials. 1978年之前，很少有任何关于如何处置这些物品的法规。Improper disposal of many of these chemicals resulted in health problems for many ci
29、tizens, contaminated water supplies, and destruction of wildlife. 这些化学物品的不当处置使市民陷入健康问题，水供应受污染和野生生物死亡。With the enactment of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1978, manufacturing facilities now have an obligation to account for all waste materials that are generated by the facility.
30、 随着资源回收法（1978年）的颁布，工厂有责任处置生产设施所产生的所有废弃材料 。Implementation of RCRA has been slow. 但是资源回收法的实施一直进展缓慢。From the very early industrial period in the United States, which started about 1920, until several years after the Second World War, there was little concern for the proper methods of disposal of waste
31、materials that were generated as by-products during manufacturing processes. 在美国，从大约1920年开始的早期工业时代，到第二次世界大战结束后几年里，几乎没人关注处理在生产过程中作为副产品产生的废弃材料的合理方法。Up until the 1960s it was quite common to find fresh water rivers and streams fouled with waste chemicals from manufacturing, salt water from oil producti
32、on wells and waste acids from steel mill activities. 直到1920年，随处可见被生产过程产生的废化学品、油井排出的盐水和炼钢厂排出的废酸所污染的淡水河流和溪涧。Virtually every conceivable waste oil, solvent, or resin waste could be found in the rivers.事实上，所有能够想象到的废物如废油、溶剂、废树脂都可以在河流里面找到。 The laws of the time were either non-existent or not enforced. 然而当
33、时的相关法律要么不存在，要么是没有被实施。The literature has many examples of health problems of individuals as well as destruction of fish and wildlife habitat. 文献记载了许多关于个体的健康问题以及鱼类、野生动物栖息地被破坏的例子。Many other cases occurred that were not reported in the literature.许多其他发生的事件并未记载在文献上。Other waste materials were dumped hapha
34、zardly in makeshift excavations either at the factory side or throughout the country side. 其他废弃物质被草率地埋在临时挖掘在工厂还有乡村旁边的坑洞里面。 Because of ignorance and lack of economic incentives to do so, the factories made no attempt to prevent contamination of underground water supplies by the chemicals that were di
35、sposed of. 因为对环境的忽视以及缺少经济刺激，各企业完全没有意识来保护被化学物质污染的地下水供应。In fact, knowledgeable scientists of the time accepted land irrigation and percolation into the porous underground formations as methods of waste treatment. 事实上，当代有见识的科学家，已经接受了土地清洗以及过滤可渗透地底层这两种可作为处理废弃物治理的方法。Although these treatment methods may ha
36、ve been intended for non-hazardous materials, they were employed for hazardous materials as well. 尽管这些治理方法或许用于无毒害的物质，同时也可用于有毒害的物质。Again, there were no governmental regulations protecting the underground aquifers from these practices. 再者，并没有政府法规因保护地下蓄水层而禁止这些处理方法。The problem of disposal of hazardous c
37、hemicals did not improve with the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the 1996. 处理有毒化学物品的问题并没有因为在1996年环境保护局的成立而有所改善。 The first task of the new agency was to clean up rivers and streams. 此新兴机构的首要任务是清理干净河流水道。 Unfortunately, no one in power in the government at the time had insight
38、 into the problems that were to be created by the new agency. 不幸的是，当时政府的执政人员没有一个洞察到那个新兴机构带来的问题。The EPA was quite successful in those early days in the enforcement of the many water pollution laws that evolved. 环境保护局在早些年的时候，对于强制执行污染法的发展还是做的相当成功的。 As the practice of the dumping of hazardous materials
39、into the rivers and streams was eliminated, those same materials created other disposal problems. 随着往河道排放有毒物质的习惯的消除，但这些相同的物质造成了其他处理问题。Many of the chemicals saved from the sewer were either worthless or of such a low value as to render recovery uneconomical. 在下水道中回收到的物质不是没价值的就是低廉到不足以恢复利用. In some cas
40、es, recovery was technically impossible. As a result, the waste chemicals were disposed of by any convenient method. 一些情况下,回收在技术层面上是不可能的.所以,很多废弃的化学药物都被很简单地扔掉了. The makeshift dumps sites were expanded. Because there were no regulations regarding disposal, 临时的垃圾场已经不得不扩大,因为没有任何关于废物丢弃的法规.persons with no
41、 technical expertise entered into the business of waste disposal. The profits were high because these individuals did not treat the chemicals. 很多不具备专业技术知识的人就进入了废物处理的行业,由于这些人并没有真正处理掉化学药物，所以这个行业的利润相当高。In most cases, the waste materials were transported to impounding areas located on privately owned la
42、nd. 很多情况下,废弃的化学物品会被运到私有土地上的贮物地.The factories that generated the waste felt secure in the belief that the waste transporter was disposing of the materials in an acceptable manner. 那些产生废弃物的厂家之所以感到安心是因为他们相信废物处理者会用一种合理的方法来处置掉废物.In most cases, this was not a correct assumption. 但很多情况下,事实并非如此.The unregula
43、ted dumps grew both in size and complexity. 乱堆放的大小规模和复杂度上都在增长. When the dumps were in close proximity to populated areas or public water supplies, a series of problems begin to develop. 当垃圾场很接近居住区或公共水源的话,一系列的问题将会开始产生.Citizens in the vicinity of some of the dumps began to experience adverse health pr
44、oblems such as skin rashes, paralysis, cancer, and birth defects. 在一些垃圾场附近的居民会开始遇到一些像皮肤疹.麻痹.癌症.先天缺陷等不利的健康问题. In some cases, these problems have been attributed to contamination from the chemicals. 有时候,这些问题会归属于受到化学药物的污染而产生的.Because of these concerns, the United States Congress enacted a new legislati
45、on that dealt with the issues of disposal of hazardous wastes. 由于这些担心，美国国会通过了一个新的处理有害废物过程中出现问题的法规。This was the Resource Conversation and Recovery Act of 1987.这就是1987年的资源回收保护法。The purpose of the Act was to allow regulation of hazardous substance disposal. 这项法案的目的是同意有害物质处理的方法。As a result, industries t
46、hat generated large quantities of these waste materials now had to ensure that the materials were disposed of in the a manner that was safe for the environment.结果导致产生大量废物的企业现在不得不确保这些物质被以对环境安全的方法处理。Many of the improper dumps that were created prior to the RCRA legislation were created by persons with
47、 little or no financial resources.在资源回收保护法由很少或者没有经济资源的人确立之前 ，很多不合理的堆放已经造成。As a result, the cleanup of the old sites has been taken over by the government under legislation. 使得清理旧的堆放点的工作由政府接管。As of this time, the results of these clean up efforts have been ineffective. 在这一时期，这些清理的努力效率不高。Because of th
48、e abuses and problems of the past, regulations have been enacted that force American industry to be responsible for hazardous waste disposal.由于过去的这些问题，强制美国工业承担有害物质处理的责任的相关法规已经颁布。The problems were brought about by a lack of economic indentives to the industrial community.这些问题是由对工业界缺少经济动力带来的。The probl
49、ems were compounded by the inexperience and lack of insight by elected governmental officials and the governmental agencies charged with the task of regulation.政府官员缺乏经验和洞察力以及政府机构对法规的控制任务使得问题复杂化。Although sufficient legislation is now in place to solve the problem of hazardous waste disposal, it is unlikely that a true solut