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1、 An Analysis of Cohesion in Chinese and Native Americans Argumentative Writing1. Defining Key TermsCohesion and CoherenceCohesion and coherence are important terms in the study of text analysis. Halliday and Hasan view the concept of cohesion as” a semantic one” (Cohesion 4). They also define the te
2、rm as “Relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text.” (Cohesion 4) In their later book, Language, Context and Text, Halliday and Hasan define cohesion and coherence as “Every text is also a context for itself. A text is characterized by Coherence, An important contri
3、bution to coherence comes from cohesion: the set of linguistic resources that every language has for linking one part of a text to another.”(48).In a word, Coherence can be created by cohesion in the way of adding some implicit meaning. As for the definition of both terms, the author agrees with Hal
4、liday and Hasans point of view. And this paper employs Hallidays approach in the analysis of cohesion 2. Data Collection and Analysis2.1 Data collectionThis paper is based on analysis of two argumentative writings. The topic of both essays is the debate of drinking age. The first argumentation chose
5、n as data is a FLC freshmans homework assignment in a key normal university from Zhejiang province. And the second essay in the data is written by John M. McCardell Jr. from CNN.com. Although the two texts vary from length and perspectives of arguments, they do share the same point of view on limiti
6、ng drinking age, also, the priority being to compare the cohesion in data. Some deviations like grammar mistakes in texts may possibly exist but they will not affect the results and findings. The data to be analyzed in this paper is in the appendix. The intentions of choosing and analyzing argumenta
7、tive writing as data in this paper are as follows. Firstly, argumentative writing comprised a large portion of the writing part in Chinese high school English test. Secondly, correlation studies on this type of writing are rare. As a pre-service teacher, it would be beneficial for the author to stud
8、y this writing type and employ the findings into future teaching career. 2.2 Methods on data analysis This paper employed Hallidays categories of cohesion (Cohesion 333-339) to analyze data. The methodology of analysis is as follows:1. Identify the cohesive items in each sentence.2. Figure out the c
9、ohesion type 3. Compare the results in two texts and find differencesThe types of cohesion in data are showed in two tables in the part of results of analysis.3. Results and Discussion3.1 Results of analysisAfter the analysis of two texts, the author found that differences of cohesive items and type
10、s are obvious. Firstly, the cohesive items in text 1 are relatively diversified as different words and expressions like “it” and “that” are used to create text coherence. However, the cohesive items in text 2 are severely repeated, the items “you” and “I” make up a large part in total cohesive items
11、 of this text. Secondly, the richness in types of cohesion is different in two texts. The types are almost totally different in text 1 while the result is opposite in text 2. The monotonicity of cohesion types in text 2 may partly be related to the cohesive items. However, in text 2, the bonded sent
12、ences are mostly adjacent pairs and simple lexical repetition is used most frequently; in text 1, the bonded sentences for certain cohesive items are not adjacent. Thirdly, there is a significant difference between the two texts rate of using paraphrases. Expressions like “The statement” and “the an
13、swer” are used in text 1 in order to refer to longer sentences or the phrases in different parts of the text. However, text 2 lacks of richness in the usage of paraphrase.Sentence No.No. of tiescohesive itemtypepresupposed item21this statementR21.6S.141the actR23.6National Minimum Drinking Age Act(S
14、.3)52And indeedC24.1S.4thatR22.6drunken driving fatalities(S.4)62theirR14.8States citizens drinking ageand C11.1States that lowered their ages during the 1970s72ItR13.6S.7butC21.2the driving age were lowered81The resultsR23.6S.791NowC5in preceding sentence101organizationsL3Mother Against Drunk Drivi
15、ngmoreR34far more years ago111muchR34much safer years ago121andC11.1Seatbelts(S.12）131nowC5contemporary time142AndC11.1S.13the mostR23.6effective way (S.14) Table1Sentence No.No. of tiescohesive itemtypepresupposed item11whichL2drinking alcohol can embolden22nowC5supposeyouL1you(S.2)32youL1you(S.2)m
16、eL2I(S.2)43at this momentC47.2S.3IL1I(S.2)your eyeL3you(S.2)53ButC21.2S.4IL1I(S.2)your eyeL3you(S.2)63your little heartL3you(S.2)IL1I(S.2)youL1you(S.2)72IL1I(S.2)youL1you(S.2)81youL1you(S.2)92thisR21.6S.8youL1you(S.2)101IL1I(S.2)111The AnswerR23.6S.10121thisR21.6drinking ageTable23.2 Reasons of cohe
17、sive distinctions between two essaysThe distinction of cohesive items and types are obvious after comparing the two tables. Reasons for the variation are to be discussed in following passages.Firstly, the cohesive items in two texts are varied. After close reading of text 2, the author found the def
18、ect is totally avoidable by replacing repeated words for cohesive items or lengthening sentences in the way of combining short sentences into longer ones. The monotonous of cohesive items and types are partly due to the Chinese ways of thinking as Chinese people view repetition as an aesthetic objec
19、t of language. In addition, it is universal for an English word to have inflections and derivatives, which might contribute to the variation of cohesive items in text 1(native writer). However, Chinese writer (nonnative writer) may have troubles in dealing with that. The limitedness of vocabulary fo
20、r Chinese writers affected their choice of words deeply. Secondly, the richness in types of cohesion is varied in two texts. Native speakers are skilled in making connections between what they are currently saying and what they said before and use different cohesive items to attain the aim, regardle
21、ss of the distance of two bonded items. However, Chinese writer may lack the ability in doing that. He or she tends to think the whole passage in Chinese, and then interpret it into English when writing it down. Its not easy for nonnative speakers to command the English way of logical thinking, stil
22、l, thinking in English is essential for English learners to advance their English language ability.Thirdly, there is a significant difference between the two texts rate of using paraphrases. The problem of monotonicity in cohesive items in text 2 can be avoided if writer use some paraphrases to repl
23、ace the items like “I” and “you”. The reasons for this problem may come from the influence of mother tongue Chinese. It may also have something to do with writers vocabulary learning habits.3.2 Implications for teaching of EFL argumentative writing Argumentative writing is an important writing style
24、 for high school students to command and comprise a large proportion of writing tests. Generally speaking, there are three factors that influence students writing ability: Logic thinking, language knowledge and writing skill. The results and analysis of cohesive problems accrued in Chinese students
25、writing can be applied to argumentative writing teaching in high school. The implications for argumentative writing teaching are as follows.Firstly, it can be seen from the analysis that native writer tend to use far more complex cohesive items and fewer simple lexical repetition than Chinese studen
26、t writings. This is caused by peoples logical thinking, which is a very complicated factor. It mainly refers to students life and studying background. Mostly, Chinese students are likely to translate their ideas from Chinese into English in the process of writing unconsciously. As a result, they ten
27、d to use the same words over and over again without the awareness of different cohesive devices. Therefore the number of cohesive items used in argumentative writing is limited. And most cohesive items used are of a monotonous type and lacking variety. Wherefore its important for teachers to focus o
28、n the coherence of discourse when teaching English writing. Some suggestions may be helpful: Teachers should pay attention to the coherence of passages in text books when giving reading classes. Reading and writing complement each other as the former emphasizes input and latter one focuses on output
29、; Teachers can expose students to western cultures and try to train students the western ways of logical thinking if time permits. These trainings will also enhance students reading speed.Secondly, language knowledge is also a crucial fact for students to improve their argumentative writing. It main
30、ly concerns about English vocabulary and grammar. Argumentative essay is relatively academic compared with other forms of writing as the words and phrases are mainly illustrative, not descriptive. In order to improve students writing ability, teachers can hold debate competitions in class to enlarge
31、 students vocabulary for argumentative writing. Finally, writing skills or so called “the ability of discourse” is of great importance in teaching writing. Coherence ability determines whether students writing is a good one. Consequently, in teaching writing skills, teachers should develop students
32、writing ability. Teachers can analyze the coherence of texts when explaining reading comprehensions and it can attract students attention on the coherence of texts and focus on the issue when they write essays.For Chinese high school students, English cohesion is hard to attain as they are easily af
33、fected by mother tongue Chinese. So teachers should play an important role in constructing their knowledge in coherence and cohesion. (1653 words)ReferencesHalliday, M.A.K. & Hasan. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group Limited, 1976 Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan. Language, Context and Text: Aspects
34、 of Language in a Social-semiotic Perspective. Melbourne: Deakin University Press, 1985Johnstone, B. Discourse analysis (2nd ed.). Malden: Blackwell, 2008Nicholas, R. “Lexical cohesion in academic writing.” Modern English teacher 23.1 (2014): 59-62胡壮麟.“有关语篇衔接理论多层次模式的思考”，上海外国语大学学报1996年第1期，第1-8页。Hu Zh
35、uangling. “A Study on cohesion relation at various levels” Journal of Foreign Languages (1), 1996:1-8.AppendixText1:But its not 1984 anymore(1).This statement may seem obvious, but not necessarily (2). In 1984 Congress passed and the president signed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act (3). The Ac
36、t, which raised the drinking age to 21 under threat of highway fund withholding, sought to address the problem of drunken driving fatalities. (4)And indeed, that problem was serious(5).States that lowered their ages during the 1970s and did nothing else to prepare young adults to make responsible de
37、cisions about alcohol witnessed an alarming increase in alcohol-related traffic fatalities (6). It was as though the driving age were lowered but no drivers education were provided (7). The results were predictable (8).Now, 25 years later, we are in a much different, and better, place (9). Thanks to
38、 the effective public advocacy of organizations like Mothers Against Drunk Driving, we are far more aware of the risks of drinking and driving (10). Automobiles are much safer (11).Seatbelts and airbags are mandatory (12). The designated driver is now a part of our vocabulary (13). And more and more
39、 states are mandating ignition interlocks for first-time DUI offenders, perhaps the most effective way to get drunken drivers off the road (14).Text2:Some people say that drinking alcohol can embolden, which I think is nonsense (1). Now you are drunk, I walked by and stand in front of you (2). You s
40、tared at me (3). At this moment Im one person in your eye (4). But the next second I am doubled in your eye (5). And your little heart almost stopped beating because Im a wizard you see (6). OK, Im not goanna eat you or kill you for good (7). But you almost committed suicide (8). And this is all bec
41、ause you drank too much (9).So what I say then, should there be a drinking age (10)? The answer is obvious (11). Yes, we need this drinking age (12). There are some reasons (13).The Full texts:Native Americans work: Commentary: Drinking age of 21 doesnt workOne year ago, a group of college and unive
42、rsity presidents and chancellors, eventually totaling 135, issued a statement that garnered national attention.The Amethyst Initiative put a debate proposition before the public - Resolved: That the 21-year-old drinking age is not working. It offered, in much the way a grand jury performs its duties
43、, sufficient evidence for putting the proposition to the test. It invited informed and dispassionate public debate and committed the signatory institutions to encouraging that debate. And it called on elected officials not to continue assuming that, after 25 years, the status quo could not be challe
44、nged, even improved.One year later, the drinking age debate continues, and new research reinforces the presidential impulse. Just this summer a study published in the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry revealed that, among college-age males, binge drinking is unchange
45、d from its levels of 1979; that among non-college women it has increased by 20 percent; and that among college women it has increased by 40 percent.Remarkably, the counterintuitive conclusion drawn by the investigators, and accepted uncritically by the media, including editorials in The New York Tim
46、es and The Washington Post is that the study proves that raising the drinking age to 21 has been a success.More recently, a study of binge drinking published in the Journal of the American Medical Association announced that despite efforts at prevention, the prevalence of binge drinking among colleg
47、e students is continuing to rise, and so are the harms associated with it.Worse still, a related study has shown that habits formed at 18 die hard: For each year studied, a greater percentage of 21- to 24-year-olds those who were of course once 18, 19 and 20 engaged in binge drinking and driving und
48、er the influence of alcohol.Yet, in the face of mounting evidence that those young adults age 18 to 20 toward whom the drinking age law has been directed are routinely - indeed in life- and health-threatening ways - violating it, there remains a belief in the land that a minimum drinking age of 21 has been