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1、2008届毕业论文外文文献DESARROLLO PRODUCTIVO N41Hessel SchuumanIntroduction The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines quality as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs (ISO 8402). The concept of qu
2、ality has evolved over the past five decades. First, quality started with inspection-oriented quality assurance1 of the final product. However, quality inspection does not eliminate the root cause of bad quality. The concept was broadened by integrating quality into all of the different functional a
3、reas that may be associated with the production process, including suppliers, sales, production and services. This approach is known as process-control-oriented quality assurance. It works well in producer markets in which producers determine supply. However, in current global consumer markets it is
4、 crucial to know what clients and consumers want. Producing a high-quality product is not sufficient if the consumer does not want the product or finds it too expensive. In short, one does not only have to design a good product but also the right product. One speaks of quality assurance with emphasi
5、s on new product development, in which quality is defined as complying with the wishes of the client. This orientation considers quality issues within the whole production system. The concept of quality is not limited to products, but also incorporates the productive, organizational and design funct
6、ions that may be associated with a particular product or service, as well as the people that are involved in these processes. Quality can therefore be identified as a management function because it needs to be planned, implemented, monitored and improved. Total Quality ManagementTotal Quality Manage
7、ment (TQM) is a management philosophy that involves all aspects of quality that are of interest to both the consumer and the organization. Globally, the TQM approach has shown to be a viable way of cutting costs, increasing productivity and improving quality. Total quality management involves all le
8、vels of an organizations management, including human resources management, leadership, policy and strategy formation, management of processes and material resources management. It also reflects enterprise results and the satisfaction of interested parties such as employees, consumers and society. TQ
9、M organizations develop a wide range of indicators to measure and improve their performance with regard to the above parameters. Standardized methodologies that define TQM evaluation criteria include regional or national schemes such as quality for awarding the Deming Award in Japan and the Malcolm
10、Baldridge Award in the United States. The main objectives of TQM are associated with consumer satisfaction and continuous improvement, both of which are crucial for favourable enterprise results. The importance of consumer satisfaction is based on the fact that in open economies, clients or consumer
11、s are the only reason why any productive process exists.2 By measuring tendencies in relevant consumer markets, an organization attempts to internalize consumer satisfaction in their production system.3 However, as the organizations environment changes continuously, consumer satisfaction and profita
12、bility can only be maintained if products, processes and human resources are continuously improved. The continuous improvement of the organizations productive system implies, for example, that any kind of error (or nonconformity) in the production system needs to be detected as early as possible and
13、 then resolved, in order to improve to the zero error situation. Continuous improvement thus requires the establishment of feedback mechanisms to eliminate detected quality failures at their point of origin. Both consumer satisfaction and continuous improvement are dynamic concepts resulting in the
14、continuous monitoring and adjustment of the different elements of quality management. Quality management practices may be defined as techniques for achieving objectives related to both consumer satisfaction and continuous improvement. In general, quality management practices optimize both the effici
15、ency and effectiveness of a certain production system (e.g., produce only what you need to produce), while traditional management practices are usually only concerned with maximizing the efficiency of the production system (e.g., produce as cheaply as possible). Therefore, the principal difference b
16、etween the two management approaches is that quality management practices aim to internalize the concept of consumer satisfaction in the different activities of the organization.4 This has resulted in different ways of organizing the production system and the application of different technologies. F
17、or example, the quality management philosophy does not necessarily result in the traditional large economies of scale. Opportunities for continuous improvement can result in efficiency improvements, but they will only be implemented if they are compatible with aspects related to consumer satisfactio
18、n. In most enterprises, the introduction of the TQM philosophy will be accompanied by organizational change. Establishing a TQM culture, therefore, is often a long-term organizational process. The commitment of management to introducing and improving organizational and technological innovations is c
19、rucial for the successful implementation of TQM. Well-defined and communicated policies and strategies are the formalization of such management commitment. The TQM philosophy is planned top down, while its actual benefits are generated at the operational levels. Control of primary production process
20、es and systematic planning of cross-functional innovation are often the most visible aspects of TQM. 10 In this respect, various quality management tools may be simultaneously implemented by using TQM objectives and principles to give direction to the organizational change that accompanies their imp
21、lementation. To formally define, describe, and manage the objectives related to consumer satisfaction and continuous improvement in the overall management function, the following fundamental principles are usually applied in the TQM approach (Rauter, 1995).Monitoring and measurement techniques. To i
22、nternalize consumer satisfaction and improve the quality of processes systematically, the organization must develop and measure relevant, reliable indicators. Such indicators are often measured with the help of statistical process methods and quality-control techniques. Quality assurance. In general
23、, TQM reduces dependence on inspection-oriented quality assurance and promotes the formalization of quality as the management function through the establishment of quality management systems. For example, an organization may develop quality manuals, procedures, work instructions or other forms of do
24、cumentation which are applicable to any activity that may affect quality. The proper functioning of a quality management system can be guaranteed to the customer by external verification, namely second or third-party certification. Clients and suppliers within the organization. Quality issues within
25、 the organization must be viewed, implemented and managed as a process. This implies that different functional departments need to view their relationships in terms of suppliers and clients, even though the transactions occur within the organization. Also, the main quality process (e.g., variation o
26、f the end-product specifications) can be subdivided into subprocesses that are often also cross-functional (e.g., control of the nonconforming product, communication, etc.). Communication and dissemination of information. Because quality issues are cross-functional and dynamic, quality management pl
27、aces a strong emphasis on communication. For example, any adjustments in the quality management system need to be communicated to employees, suppliers, clients and the community. Also, good and right product quality depends to a certain extent on external factors such as supplier inputs and consumer
28、 wishes. TQM companies therefore communicate intensively with their critical suppliers and clients. Delegation of responsibilities. Opportunities for continuous improvement or innovations are most effectively and efficiently identified at the operational levels. This implies that employees and worke
29、rs of every functional department need to incorporate the concept of quality into their daily operational activities. Everybody is a quality manager. This is often referred to as the cultural change that an organization needs to go through to effectively implement TQM. It would be inefficient in ter
30、ms of time, cost and flexibility if every functional department were to establish its own quality unit. This would lead to an additional hierarchical layer for inspecting quality issues, and it would discourage proactive participation concerning the implementation of TQM principles at all levels of
31、the organization. Therefore, TQM organizations generally enlarge employee responsibilities (see box 1). Delegation leads to fewer hierarchical organizational levels, which, in turn, may result in a more-flexible, less-bureaucratic organization. This seems to be prerequisite for continuous improvemen
32、t and innovation (Maas, 1992). A supervisor of a TQM organization is more a team catalyst than a work inspector. Human resources develop-ment. Emphasis on training and worker satisfaction is one of the core principles of the TQM philosophy, and it is crucial with regard to the implementation of the
33、other TQM principles. TQM emphasizes the establishment of an environment that allows organizational change to happen. The successful integration of consumer satisfaction and continuous improvement in any organization depends, in the end, on human factors, because technology may always be imitated by
34、 competitors. TQM organizations continuously train employees at all levels. Workers need to be trained to understand and apply the measurement techniques, to perform their enlarged responsibilities, to understand the TQM principals and their potential impact on quality, and to have sufficient skills to identify innovations. TQM organizations often apply a wide range of services and incentives to ensure employee satisfaction, including child care; health and pension funds; wage incentives and lifetime -employment schemes; and training. 图表 1